medical

sleep

importance of sleep

Sleep is a basic need to maintain physical health and mental balance. Good sleep helps strengthen the immune system, improves mood, promotes memory and learning, and supports the body's repair and regeneration.

stages of sleep

Sleep is divided into two stages: rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement (NREM). The NREM stage is further subdivided into three stages, including sleep, light sleep and deep sleep, which play an important role in body repair and memory enhancement. The REM period is related to dreams and helps with emotional regulation and memory integration.

Factors affecting sleep

Sleep is affected by many factors, including lifestyle habits, stress, diet, use of electronic devices and environmental factors such as light and noise. Maintaining a regular schedule, reducing caffeine intake, and staying away from electronic devices before bed can help improve sleep quality.

Consequences of lack of sleep

Chronic sleep deprivation may lead to poor concentration, poor memory, reduced immunity, and even increased risks of cardiovascular disease and obesity. Additionally, mood swings and anxiety are closely linked to sleep deprivation.

How to improve sleep

Establish a regular sleep routine:Go to bed and wake up at the same time every day, even on holidays.
Create a sleep-friendly environment:Keep your bedroom quiet, dark, and at a comfortable temperature.
Avoid irritants:Avoid caffeine, alcohol, and heavy meals before bed, and limit the use of electronic devices.
Moderate exercise:Moderate physical activity every day can help improve sleep quality, but avoid exercising before bed.

sports

Basic concepts

Exercise refers to the body's planned and purposeful activities to improve physical health and function through muscle contraction and energy consumption.

health benefits

Regular exercise can improve cardiovascular health, build muscle and bone strength, increase metabolic rate, control weight, and help reduce stress and improve mental health.

exercise type

Exercise can be divided into aerobic exercise (such as running, swimming, cycling), anaerobic exercise (such as weight training, sprinting), stretching exercise (such as yoga, stretching), and balance and flexibility training.

Exercise advice

It is generally recommended for adults to do at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise every week, combined with strength training and stretching exercises, and adjust according to individual physical conditions.

Things to note

Warm up before exercise and cool down and stretch after exercise to avoid injury. People with chronic diseases or specific medical conditions should consult a physician first.

aerobics

Aerobic exercise refers to physical exercise performed by the human body with sufficient supply of oxygen. This type of exercise is usually regular, rhythmic and of long duration, which can effectively improve cardiorespiratory endurance and promote metabolism.

Basic definitions and principles

During exercise, the energy required for muscle activity is mainly provided by the aerobic metabolism system, which uses inhaled oxygen to break down sugar and fat in the body. When the exercise intensity is maintained at 60% to 80% of the maximum heart rate, the body can steadily produce energy and is less likely to accumulate excessive lactic acid.

Common types of aerobic exercise

Low-impact exercise:Brisk walking, swimming, biking, elliptical training. These exercises put less pressure on the joints and are suitable for beginners or seniors.
High impact exercise:Running, skipping, aerobic dance, burpees. This type of exercise is helpful for increasing bone density, but puts a higher load on joints.
Competitive sports:Football, basketball, long distance tennis.

Physiological benefits

Strengthen cardiovascular function:Increase heart contraction force, improve blood circulation, and reduce resting heart rate and blood pressure.
Weight control:Through long-term energy consumption, it effectively burns body fat and helps maintain a healthy weight.
Improve breathing efficiency:Strengthen respiratory muscles, increase lung capacity and oxygen exchange capacity.
Mental health:Exercise causes the brain to secrete endorphins and dopamine, which helps relieve stress, improve depression and improve sleep quality.

The difference between aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise

Compare items	aerobics	anaerobic exercise
energy source	Oxygen, fat, sugar	Phosphagen system, glycolysis (non-aerobic)
exercise intensity	low to medium intensity	High intensity, explosive
main goal	Cardiopulmonary endurance, cellulite reduction, endurance improvement	Muscle hypertrophy, strength enhancement, explosive power
representative movement	Jogging, long-distance swimming, marathon	Weightlifting, sprint sprints, jump squats

For optimal health, it is recommended to engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise per week. Warm up adequately before exercise, and stretch after exercise to help muscles relax to prevent sports injuries and reduce soreness.

anaerobic exercise

Anaerobic Exercise refers to an exercise method in which the energy required for human muscle activity is mainly provided by the "anaerobic metabolic system" during exercise. This type of exercise is usually extremely high-intensity, explosive and short-duration. The body cannot supply enough oxygen to break down sugar to produce energy in a short period of time, so it turns to using energy substances stored in the muscles for metabolism.

energy metabolism mechanism

Anaerobic exercise mainly relies on the phosphagen system (ATP-PC) and lactic acid system (anaerobic glycolysis) in the body to quickly produce energy:

Phosphagen system:Provides extremely high-intensity exercise that can only be sustained for about 10 seconds, such as a 100-meter sprint or the first lift of a weight training session.
Lactic acid system:Providing high-intensity exercise that lasts about 30 seconds to 2 minutes will produce lactic acid accumulation during the metabolic process, leading to muscle soreness and fatigue.

Common types of exercise

Weight training:Training that uses resistance to strengthen muscle hypertrophy and strength, such as squats, deadlifts, and bench presses.
Short sprint:Such as a 100-meter dash or a short all-out bike sprint.
High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT):Extremely high-intensity exercise in a short period of time with very short rest periods.
Plyometric training:Explosive movements such as burpees, squat jumps, etc.

Main physiological benefits

Muscle hypertrophy and strength enhancement:By causing minor damage to muscle fibers and repairing them, it increases muscle size and the nervous system's ability to recruit muscles.
Increase basal metabolic rate:Increased muscle mass allows the body to consume more calories at rest and produces the "afterburn effect" (EPOC), which means that calories continue to be burned after exercise.
Strengthen bone density:High-intensity mechanical load can stimulate osteoblast activity and help prevent osteoporosis.
Improve sugar tolerance:Improves insulin sensitivity and helps regulate blood sugar stability.

The difference between anaerobic exercise and aerobic exercise

Compare items	anaerobic exercise	aerobics
exercise intensity	Extremely high intensity (go all out)	Low to medium intensity (sustainable)
duration	Short (seconds to minutes)	Long (more than 20 minutes)
main fuel	Glucose, glycogen	Oxygen, fat, sugar
Main causes of fatigue	Lactic acid accumulation, nervous fatigue	energy depletion, water loss

When performing anaerobic exercise, correct posture and proper rest and recovery are crucial. Due to the high intensity, it is recommended to perform it under professional guidance and ensure adequate recovery time between each set to avoid muscle strain or overtraining syndrome. Supplementing an appropriate amount of protein and carbohydrates after exercise can effectively assist muscle repair and growth.

confined space movement

In limited spaces such as homes, offices, or small bedrooms, cardiopulmonary training and muscle strengthening can still be achieved through appropriate movement design. This type of exercise is characterized by a small footprint (usually only the size of a yoga mat) and does not require the assistance of large equipment.

Suitable aerobic exercise

When space is limited, the focus of aerobic exercise is to quickly increase the heart rate through high-frequency body swings:

Jumping Jacks:A classic province-wide cardio workout that only requires vertical space in place.
High Knees:Simulates the motion of running but stays in place, effectively increasing your heart rate and training your core and lower limbs.
Mountain Climbers:Place your hands on the ground and move your legs alternately toward your chest, combining cardio, lung, and abdominal core training.
Shadow Boxing:By punching quickly with both hands and jumping slightly in steps, a lot of calories are consumed in a very small space.
Burpees:Combining squats, push-ups and jumps is the most space-efficient high-intensity aerobic exercise.

Suitable anaerobic exercise

Confined space is the best place for bodyweight training (hand training), mainly targeting muscle endurance and explosive power:

Squats:Exercise the front, back and gluteus maximus muscles of the thighs, and the movement trajectory is purely vertical lifting.
Push-ups:Training the pectoralis major, deltoid muscles and triceps requires only a body length of floor space.
Plank:Core static stability training has a significant effect on maintaining posture and protecting the spine.
Lunges:Alternating steps in place can strengthen the balance of the lower limbs and the strength of one leg.
Tricep Dips:Use the edge of a stable bed or chair to target the triceps on the back of your arms.
Sit-ups:A classic exercise for the abdominal muscles that can be performed on a flat surface at the length of a single person lying down.

Movement characteristics comparison table

training index	confined space aerobics	Confined space anaerobic
required area	About 1x1 meter (mainly vertical jump)	About the size of a yoga mat (length when lying down)
Noise level	Higher (if there is a jumping action)	Very low (mostly static or slow motion)
Main benefits	Burn fat, improve cardiopulmonary function, and perspire	Build muscle, strengthen bone density, and increase metabolic rate
Recommended time	20-40 minutes ongoing	Perform 12-15 reps of each move for 3-5 sets

Safety precautions

When exercising in a narrow environment, first ensure that the ground is flat and not slippery. It is recommended to lay professional fitness mats to cushion the impact and reduce noise interference to neighbors. Before exercising, you should check whether there are sharp furniture corners around you to avoid collision injuries caused by large movements. If the ceiling height is low, you need to pay extra attention to the distance when jumping or raising your hands to ensure that the movement flow is smooth and safe.

resistance training

Basic concepts

Resistance training is an exercise method that builds muscle strength, endurance and muscle mass by resisting external resistance (such as dumbbells, elastic bands or body weight).

health benefits

Resistance training can enhance muscle strength and bone density, improve joint stability, increase basal metabolic rate, reduce the risk of injury, and help with blood sugar control and posture improvement.

Common methods

Including free weight training (dumbbells, barbells), equipment training, elastic band training, body weight training (press-ups, squats), etc.

training suggestions

Beginners should start with light weight and low reps, gradually increase the intensity and number of sets, and perform resistance training 2-3 times a week with adequate rest.

Things to note

Correct posture should be maintained during training to avoid injuries caused by overload. If you have a history of chronic illness or injury, it is recommended to consult a professional coach or physician first.

Human tissues and organs

human tissue

Human tissues are composed of groups of cells with similar structures and functions, and perform specific physiological functions. The human body is divided into four basic tissue types.

Epithelial tissue:Covers the surface of the body and the internal channels of organs, and has functions such as protection, absorption, and secretion. For example: skin epidermis, intestinal lining.
Connective tissue:Supports, connects, and protects a wide variety of other tissues, including bone, blood, fat, cartilage, and tendons.
Muscle tissue:It is composed of muscle cells that can contract to produce movement, and is divided into skeletal muscle (voluntary movement), cardiac muscle (heart contraction), and smooth muscle (visceral movement).
Nervous tissue:It is composed of neurons and glial cells and is responsible for receiving, conducting and processing signals, forming the human nervous system.

human organs

Organs are structures composed of a variety of tissues that perform specific physiological functions. Different organs work together to form an organ system.

Circulatory system:heart, blood vessels
Respiratory system:Lungs, trachea
Digestive system:Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas
Urinary system:Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
Nervous system:Brain, cerebellum, spinal cord, neural network
Movement system:Bones, skeletal muscles, joints
Endocrine system:Thyroid, adrenal gland, pancreatic islets, pituitary gland
Reproductive system:Male (testicle, prostate), female (ovary, uterus)
Immune system:spleen, lymph nodes, thymus
Skin system:Skin (the largest organ of the human body), hair, nails

Function

Maintain body structure and form
Support and connect various organs
Performing exercise and energy expenditure
convey information and coordinate physical activities
Protect the body from external damage and infection

Interesting facts

There are approximately 78 major organs in the human body, the largest of which is the skin and the smallest is the pineal gland located in the brain.

circulatory system

Main functions

The circulatory system is a key system for maintaining life in the human body. It is mainly responsible for blood circulation, transporting oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells throughout the body, taking away carbon dioxide and metabolic waste, and assisting in immune defense and body temperature regulation.

components

heart: The core pump organ of the circulatory system, pushing blood throughout the body through contraction and relaxation.
Blood vessel
- Arteries: carry highly oxygenated blood from the heart to the body (except the pulmonary arteries).
- Veins: Return blood to the heart, containing low-oxygen blood (except the pulmonary veins).
- Microvessels: The main site for material exchange.
blood: Including red blood cells (carrying oxygen), white blood cells (immune defense), platelets (coagulation), and plasma (carrying nutrients, hormones, and waste products).

cycle path

systemic circulation: The left ventricle of the heart sends oxygenated blood to the whole body and then returns to the right atrium.
Pulmonary circulation: The right ventricle sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs for gas exchange, and then returns to the left atrium.

Related organs and systems collaborate

andrespiratory systemWork together to keep the blood oxygenated and remove carbon dioxide.
andurinary systemCooperate to eliminate metabolic waste products from the blood.
andimmune systemBind and transport immune cells and antibodies through the blood.
andendocrine systemCooperate to transport various hormones to regulate physiological functions.

lipoprotein

Lipoproteins are the transport vehicles responsible for transporting fats (such as cholesterol and triglycerides) in the human body. Since fats are insoluble in water, they must combine with proteins to form lipoproteins in order to flow in the blood. The two most commonly discussed types are high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and low-density lipoproteins (LDL).

High-density lipoprotein (HDL)

HDL is often called the "good cholesterol." Its main task is to collect excess cholesterol from the blood and tissues and transport it back to the liver for metabolism or excretion from the body. This process, called reverse cholesterol transport, helps keep blood vessels open and prevents arteriosclerosis.

low density lipoprotein (LDL)

LDL is called "bad cholesterol". Its function is to transport cholesterol produced by the liver to various parts of the body for use by cells. However, when the concentration of LDL in the blood is too high, it is easily oxidized and accumulated on the walls of blood vessels, forming atherosclerotic plaques.

Over time, these plaques can cause blood vessels to narrow and lose their elasticity, leading to cardiovascular diseases such as high blood pressure, myocardial infarction, or stroke.

Comparison of the differences between HDL and LDL

project	High-density lipoprotein (HDL)	low density lipoprotein (LDL)
Commonly known as	Good cholesterol (blood vessel scavenger)	Bad cholesterol (those with clogged blood vessels)
Main functions	Carrying cholesterol from blood vessels back to the liver	Carry cholesterol from liver to blood vessels/tissues
Effect on blood vessels	Protect blood vessel walls and prevent sclerosis	Easily deposits to form plaques, leading to hardening
ideal value	Higher is better (greater than 40-60 mg/dL)	Lower is better (less than 100-130 mg/dL)

Factors affecting numerical values and suggestions for improvement

Maintaining a good lipoprotein ratio is essential for cardiovascular health. Here are common ways to adjust values:

Diet modification: Reduce the intake of saturated fat (such as fat, butter) and trans fat, and increase the intake of Omega-3 fatty acids (such as deep-sea fish, nuts).
Regular exercise: Aerobic exercise can effectively increase HDL levels and help lower LDL.
Quit smoking: Nicotine and chemicals in cigarettes can reduce HDL concentrations and damage the endothelium of blood vessels.
Weight management: Maintaining a healthy body mass index (BMI) helps improve overall lipid metabolism.
Regular screening: Understand your blood lipid status through blood tests, and perform necessary medical intervention under the guidance of a physician.

digestive system

Main functions of the digestive system

Break down food into small molecules (nutrients) that the body can absorb and use to provide energy, grow and repair tissues.

components of the digestive system

digestive tract (digestive tube): Oral cavity → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) → large intestine (cecum, colon, rectum) → anus
digestive glands：
- Salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, sublingual)
- gastric glands
- Liver (makes bile)
- Gallbladder (stores bile)
- Pancreas (secrets pancreatic juice, containing a variety of digestive enzymes)

Functions of each segment of the digestive tract

parts	Main functions	Important secretions/enzymes
oral cavity	Mechanical digestion (chewing) + chemical digestion (starch begins to break down)	Saliva (contains salivary amylase)
esophagus	Peristalsis transports food to the stomach	No digestive enzymes
Stomach	Preliminary digestion of protein, sterilization, and turning food into chyme	Gastric acid (HCl), pepsin
small intestine	main absorption site, where almost all nutrients are digested and absorbed	Pancreatic juice (amylase, trypsin, pancreatic lipase), bile (emulsified fat), small intestinal juice (various enzymes)
the large intestine	Absorb water and electrolytes, form feces, and ferment intestinal flora to produce vitamin K and B complex	No digestive enzymes, mainly rely on bacteria

Digestion and absorption of the three major nutrients

carbohydrate→ Salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase → Maltose → Small intestinal brush border enzyme → Glucose → Small intestinal absorption
protein→ Pepsin → Peptides → Trypsin, chymotrypsin → Small peptides/amino acids → Small intestinal absorption
Fat→ Bile emulsification → Pancreatic lipase → Fatty acid + monoglyceride → Formation of microcells → Small intestinal absorption → Re-synthesize triglyceride and encapsulate it into chylomicrons and enter the lymph

Important hormone regulation

Gastrin: stimulates gastric acid secretion
Secretin: stimulates the pancreas to secrete sodium bicarbonate (neutralizes gastric acid)
Cholecystokinin (CCK): stimulates gallbladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion

respiratory system

Main functions of the respiratory system

Carry out gas exchange: inhale O₂ for cells to use, discharge CO₂ produced by cells, and maintain blood acid-base balance.

components of respiratory system

respiratory tract(conducting area): nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → main bronchi → bronchi → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles
breathing zone(for gas exchange): respiratory bronchioles → alveolar ducts → alveolar sacs → alveoli
respiratory muscles: Diaphragm, external intercostal muscles (main), internal intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles, neck muscles (auxiliary)
pleura: Parietal pleura + visceral pleura, between the two layers is the pleural cavity (containing a small amount of pleural fluid, negative pressure)

Characteristics and functions of each segment of the respiratory tract

parts	Structural features	Main functions
nasal cavity	Turbinates, mucosa, cilia, rich blood vessels	Filter, warm, and humidify air; smell
pharynx	common channel	Epiglottis cartilage prevents food from accidentally entering the trachea
throat	Vocal cords, cartilage support	Produces voice and protects lower respiratory tract
trachea	C-shaped cartilage ring, posterior wall smooth muscle	Keep airways open and cilia remove foreign matter
bronchi → bronchioles	Cartilage gradually decreases → disappears, and smooth muscle increases	Conduct air, the bronchioles can contract to regulate air flow
Alveoli	Type I alveolar cells (gas exchange), type II alveolar cells (secret surfactant)	Diffusion exchange of O₂ and CO₂, surfactant reduces surface tension to prevent alveolar collapse

respiratory movement mechanism

Inhale: Diaphragm descent + external intercostal muscle contraction → Chest volume ↑ → Intrapulmonary pressure ↓ (lower than atmospheric pressure) → Air inflow
Exhale：
- Quiet exhalation: Passive, relying on the elastic retraction of the lungs and chest wall
- Exhale forcefully: internal intercostal muscles + abdominal muscle contraction

Lung volume and lung volume (important values)

Tidal volume (TV): approximately 500 mL
Inspiratory supplementary volume (IRV): approximately 3000 mL
Expired respiratory volume (ERV): approximately 1100 mL
Residual volume (RV): approximately 1200 mL (unable to exhale)
Total lung capacity (TLC) = RV + VC ≈ 6000 mL (adult male)
Vital capacity (VC) = TV + IRV + ERV ≈ 4600 mL
Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) is normal ≥ 80% FVC

Gas exchange and transport

Alveolar gas exchange: by diffusion (O₂ from the alveoli → blood, CO₂ from the blood → alveoli)
Blood transport:
- O₂: 98% combined with heme to form oxygenated heme, 2% dissolved in plasma
- CO₂: 7% dissolved, 23% combined with heme to form carbamate heme, 70% converted to HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate)

respiratory regulatory center

Medulla oblongata: basic rhythm of breathing (inspiratory neurons, expiratory neurons)
pons: regulates the smoothness of breathing (breathing adjustment center)
Chemoreceptors:
- Center (medulla oblongata): detects the pH of cerebrospinal fluid (CO₂↑ → pH↓ → stimulates breathing)
- Peripheral (carotid body, aortic body): detect blood O₂, CO₂, pH

nervous system

Overview

The nervous system is composed of nerve cells and support cells, which are responsible for receiving, processing and transmitting messages to coordinate various physiological functions and behaviors of organisms.
exist inall vertebratesand in some invertebrates (such as cephalopods and arthropods), but the complexity varies greatly.
can be divided intocentral nervous systemandperipheral nervous systemTwo parts.

central nervous system (CNS)

composition:Brain and spinal cord.
Function:Responsible for information integration and decision-making, and issuing instructions.
brain:Including the cerebrum (cognition, sensation, motor control), cerebellum (balance and coordination), and brainstem (basic life functions).
spinal cord:It transmits signals between the brain and various parts of the body and can perform reflex actions.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

composition:All nerves located outside the CNS, including cranial and spinal nerves.
Function:It transmits sensory signals to the CNS and transmits CNS instructions to various organs and muscles.
Branch:
- Somatic nervous system:Responsible for voluntary movement and external senses (such as touch, vision, hearing).
- Autonomic nervous system:Controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and digestion, and is divided into sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous systems.

Autonomic Nervous System Subdivisions

Sympathetic nerves:Promotes the "fight or flight" response, increases heart rate, dilates pupils, and inhibits digestion.
Parasympathetic nerves:Promote a "rest and digest" state, lower heart rate, and promote gastrointestinal motility.
Enteric nervous system:Located in the intestines, it can independently regulate digestive functions.

Neurons and signal conduction

Neurons:Cells specifically responsible for transmitting signals are composed of cell bodies, dendrites, and axons.
Signal transmission method:Electrical signals are transmitted along the axon, and neurotransmitters are released across the synapse to carry the signal to the next cell.
Supporting cells (glial cells):Provides nutrition, protection, and insulation (eg, Schwann cells form myelin).

clinically relevant

Neurological diseases include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and more.
Injuries can result in movement disorders, loss of sensation, or abnormal autonomic function.

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nerves

Sympathetic Nervous System Functions

The sympathetic nervous system is mainly responsible for regulating the body's response in emergency situations, also known as the "fight or flight response." When we are faced with stress or danger, the sympathetic nervous system activates, speeding up the heartbeat, dilating pupils, inhibiting digestion, etc., so that the body can focus its resources to respond to the threat.

Functions of the parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system is related to "rest and digest" and helps restore calm, promote digestion and energy storage. When stress is relieved, the parasympathetic nervous system slows the heartbeat, increases digestive system activity, and helps the body return to a stable state.

Interaction between sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems balance each other and help the body adjust its physiological state according to different situations. When the sympathetic nervous system is active, parasympathetic nervous system activity decreases, and vice versa. This alternating control ensures the body's ability to adapt.

The physiological effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves

heart:The sympathetic nervous system speeds up the heartbeat, and the parasympathetic nervous system slows down the heartbeat.
breathe:The sympathetic nervous system speeds up breathing and the parasympathetic nervous system slows down breathing.
Digestion:The sympathetic nervous system inhibits digestion, while the parasympathetic nervous system promotes digestion.

Effects of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nerve Imbalance

If the sympathetic nervous system is overactive for a long time, it may lead to problems such as chronic stress, anxiety, and indigestion; while if the parasympathetic nervous system is overactive, it may cause excessive relaxation and affect the normal body's ability to respond. Therefore, maintaining a balance between the two is important for health.

vagus nerve

Overview

The vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve and is a mixed nerve containing sensory, motor and parasympathetic fibers.
The name comes from the Latin word "vagus", which means "wandering" because of its wide distribution, extending from the brainstem to the chest and abdominal cavity.
The vagus nerve is present inall vertebratesIncluding fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, but the branching and dominance range may be slightly different in different groups.

anatomical path

Originates from the vagal nucleus in the medulla oblongata (medulla oblongata).
It goes down along the carotid artery through the neck, enters the chest, and then extends to the abdominal organs.
Branches include: auricular branch, pharyngeal branch, recurrent laryngeal nerve, cardiac branch, bronchial branch and celiac branch, etc.

Main functions

Sensory function:Transmits sensory signals from the pharynx, larynx, chest and abdominal organs.
Movement function:Controls some muscles in the pharynx and larynx and participates in swallowing and vocalization.
Parasympathetic function:Regulates heartbeat, breathing, digestive tract peristalsis and gland secretion.

physiological significance

It is an important component of the parasympathetic nerve of the autonomic nervous system, responsible for lowering the heart rate and promoting digestion.
Closely related to the gut-brain axis, affecting mood and stress response.

clinically relevant

Vagus Nerve Stimulation Therapy (VNS):Used to treat refractory epilepsy and depression.
Injury symptoms:May cause difficulty swallowing, hoarseness, abnormal heart rhythm, or digestive dysfunction.

opioid receptors

Opioid Receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) present in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. Their main function is to regulate pain transmission, emotional responses, reward mechanisms, and respiratory and digestive functions. These receptors can be activated by endogenous opioid peptides (such as enkephalins, endorphins) or exogenous opioids (such as morphine, fentanyl) in the body.

Main receptor types and functions

Current scientific research divides opioid receptors into four main types, each of which has different distribution in the body and different physiological effects:

Receptor type	Main physiological effects	Related ligands and risks
Mu (μ) receptor	Potent analgesia, euphoria, miosis, respiratory depression, constipation	The main point of action of morphine and fentanyl; highly addictive
Delta (delta) receptor	Analgesic (weak), anti-anxiety, mood regulation	Related to modulation of affective disorders, with fewer side effects than Mu receptors
Kappa (κ) receptor	Analgesia, miosis, polyuria, restlessness (Dysphoria)	Related to certain hallucinogenic effects and less likely to produce euphoria
NOP receptor	Hyperalgesia or analgesia (depending on dose), anxiety modulation	It is an orphan receptor of the opioid receptor family and is related to learning and memory.

Mechanism of action at the cellular level

When opioids bind to receptors, they initiate intracellular message transmission pathways, which mainly include the following processes:

Inhibits adenylyl cyclase:Reduce intracellular cAMP concentration and inhibit the excitability of nerve cells.
Ion channel regulation:It closes calcium ion channels on the cell membrane (reducing the release of neurotransmitters) and opens potassium ion channels (causing hyperpolarization of neurons), thereby blocking the transmission of pain signals.
Gene expression changes:Long-term activation can lead to receptor endocytosis or tolerance, which is an important physiological basis for drug dependence.

clinical pharmacological applications

Opioid receptors are extremely important therapeutic targets in modern medicine:

Agonists:Such as morphine and codeine, used to relieve moderate to severe pain, cough or diarrhea.
Antagonists:Naloxone, for example, can quickly relieve respiratory depression caused by opioid overdose and is often used in first aid.
Partial agonists:For example, Buprenorphine is an alternative therapy used to treat opioid addiction. It can slow down withdrawal symptoms and is relatively safe.

Due to the powerful rewarding effect produced by activation of Mu receptors, opioids can easily lead to addiction and abuse, and long-term use can also lead to tolerance, that is, higher doses are required to achieve the same analgesic effect. Therefore, clinical control and prescription of such drugs are extremely strict.

Nervous System Related Micronutrients

Overview

The normal operation of the nervous system relies on a variety of vitamins and trace elements, which are involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, nerve myelination, energy metabolism and antioxidant protection. Lack of these nutrients may lead to abnormal nerve conduction, sensory impairment, memory loss, or neurodegenerative diseases.

important vitamins

Vitamin B complex

Vitamin B₁ (Thiamine):
Involved in glucose metabolism and nerve energy supply. Beriberi, peripheral neuropathy and Wernicke’s encephalopathy may occur in deficiencies.
Vitamin B₂ (riboflavin):
It is a coenzyme in cellular energy metabolism and maintains nerve cell function.
Vitamin B₃ (Niacin, Niacin):
Participates in the formation of NAD⁺/NADP⁺ and is important for nerve cell energy metabolism and DNA repair. Deficiency can lead to pellagra (Pellagra).
Vitamin B₆ (pyridoxine, Pyridoxine):
Involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and GABA. Deficiency can cause mood swings, epilepsy, or neuritis.
Vitamin B₉ (folate):
Essential for nervous system development, especially during fetal neural tube formation. Deficiencies can cause neural tube defects and cognitive impairment.
Vitamin B₁₂ (cobalamin):
Participates in myelin synthesis and DNA synthesis. Deficiency can lead to pernicious anemia and peripheral neuropathy, with symptoms such as numbness and unsteady gait.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid, Ascorbic Acid)

It is an important antioxidant that protects nerve cells from free radical damage and participates in the synthesis of neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine.

Vitamin D

Expresses its receptor (VDR) in the brain and participates in neuroprotection, calcium ion balance and nerve regeneration. Deficiency has been linked to depression, multiple sclerosis (MS) and other diseases.

Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

Fat-soluble antioxidant that protects nerve cell membranes from oxidative damage. Deficiency can cause ataxia and peripheral neuropathy.

Key trace elements

Calcium:Involved in the release of neurotransmitters and muscle contraction. Abnormal calcium ion concentrations can lead to imbalances in neural excitation or inhibition.
Magnesium:Stabilizes nerve membrane potential and is a regulator of NMDA receptors, helping to prevent excessive excitability nerve conduction. Deficiency is associated with anxiety and insomnia.
Potassium:Maintaining the generation and conduction of nerve action potentials is the key ion for nerve cell polarization.
Sodium:Works with potassium to maintain cell membrane potential. Hyponatremia can cause confusion and convulsions.
Zinc:Participates in neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity, and is related to memory and learning functions. Deficiencies can lead to reduced concentration and neurodegeneration.
Iron:An essential element for nerve cell energy metabolism and dopamine synthesis. Lack of attention and attention deficits are associated with cognitive decline.
Copper:Involved in myelination and neurotransmitter metabolism. Deficiency can cause neurodegenerative diseases (such as Menkes disease).
Selenium:Constitutes antioxidant enzymes (such as glutathione peroxidase) to protect nerve cells from oxidative damage.
Iodine:It is required for the synthesis of thyroid hormone and affects brain development and neurological function.

lack of association with disease

Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency:Causes degeneration of the posterior cord of the spinal cord, numbness, and muscle weakness.
Vitamin B₆ deficiency:Can cause epileptiform seizures.
Vitamin D deficiency:Linked to increased risk of multiple sclerosis and depression.
Zinc and Iron Deficiency:May affect children's intelligence and attention development.
Vitamin E deficiency:Causes movement coordination disorders and sensory nerve degeneration.

Scientific research and application

Studies have shown that combined supplementation of vitamin B complex and Omega-3 fatty acids can improve mild cognitive impairment.
Vitamin D and magnesium have been shown to reduce anxiety and sleep disorders.
Zinc and selenium have shown antioxidant protective effects in studies to prevent Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.

immune system

Basic concepts of the immune system

The immune system is an important defense mechanism of the human body. Its main function is to identify and eliminate foreign pathogens (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites) and abnormal cells (such as cancer cells). It maintains body health and stability through cells, organs and molecules working together.

immune system components

Immune organs:
- Central immune organ:bone marrow, thymus
- Peripheral immune organs:Lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, Peyer's patches (inside the small intestine)
Immune cells:
- Lymphocytes:T cells, B cells, natural killer cells (NK cells)
- Phagocytic cells:macrophages, neutrophils
- Dendritic cells:Antigen presenting cells, initiating T cell responses
Immune molecules:
- Antibodies (secreted by plasma cells differentiated by B cells)
- Complement system (helps destroy pathogens)
- Cytokines (such as interferons, interleukins, tumor necrosis factor)

type of immune response

Innate immunity:Rapid but non-specific defenses such as skin barrier, phagocytosis.
Acquired immunity:Specificity and memory function, including:
- Humoral immunity (B cells → antibodies)
- Cellular immunity (T cells → attack infected cells or regulate immune response)

Immune system and disease

Immunodeficiency:Such as AIDS (HIV attacks CD4+ T cells).
Autoimmune diseases:Such as lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis.
allergic reaction:The immune system overreacts to harmless substances (e.g. pollen, food).
Immunotherapy:Cancer immune checkpoint inhibitors, CAR-T cell therapy, etc.

T cells

Overview

T cells (T lymphocytes) are one of the main lymphocytes in the adaptive immune system and are a type of white blood cells. The “T” in its name comes from the thymus, because T cells mature in the thymus before they have the ability to recognize antigens and perform immune functions. T cells play a key role in immune defense, recognizing foreign antigens and coordinating immune responses.

development and differentiation

T cells originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, enter the thymus through the blood, and undergo positive and negative selection in the thymus to ensure that they can recognize foreign antigens but not attack their own tissues. Mature T cells can be divided into various types according to their functions.

Main types and functions of T cells

Helper T cells (Th):There are CD4 molecules on the surface, which are responsible for coordinating immune responses and secreting cytokines to activate B cells, macrophages and cytotoxic T cells. Can be subdivided into:
- Th1：Promote cellular immunity, secrete IL-2 and IFN-γ, and activate macrophages and CTL.
- Th2：Promote humoral immunity, secrete IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and stimulate B cells to produce antibodies (especially IgE).
- Th17：Secretes IL-17, which is associated with chronic inflammation and autoimmune diseases.
Cytotoxic T cells (Tc):It has CD8 molecules on its surface, which can directly kill virus-infected or cancerized cells, mainly through the release of perforin and granzymes, causing target cell apoptosis.
Regulatory T cells (Treg):CD4 and FOXP3 are often expressed on the surface and are responsible for suppressing excessive immune responses and preventing autoimmune diseases.
Memory T cells:Formed after an initial infection, it can persist for a long time and quickly initiate an immune response when reinfected.

T cell receptor (TCR)

T cells recognize antigens through the T-cell receptor (TCR) on their surface. TCR cannot directly recognize free antigens, but must present antigen peptides on the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) through antigen-presenting cells (APC):

MHC I + antigen → by CD8⁺Cytotoxic T cell identification.
MHC II + antigen → by CD4⁺Helper T cell identification.

The role of T cells in the immune response

Virus Defense:Cytotoxic T cells recognize virus-infected cells and eliminate them.
Tumor immunity:T cells can recognize abnormal antigens on the surface of tumor cells and induce their apoptosis.
Immunity coordination:Helper T cells secrete cytokines to assist B cell differentiation and antibody production.
Autoimmunity and allergies:When T cell responses are imbalanced, autoimmune diseases or allergic inflammation may result.

Clinical and Application

CAR-T cell therapy:The use of genetic engineering to modify a patient's T cells so that they can specifically attack cancer cells has been a breakthrough in cancer immunotherapy in recent years.
Immunosuppressants:For example, Cyclosporine or Tacrolimus can inhibit T cell activation and are used for organ transplantation and autoimmune diseases.
Vaccine effects:By inducing the production of memory T cells, it improves protection against reinfection.
allergic reaction:Th2 cells promote the production of IgE, which is one of the key immune mechanisms in asthma and atopic dermatitis.

Latest research directions

T cell metabolism:Study the relationship between its energy utilization and immune function to provide new targets for immune regulation.
Tregs and intestinal immunity:Explore how intestinal flora affects Treg development and immune tolerance.
AI and T cell identification simulation:Use artificial intelligence to analyze the binding mechanism between TCR and antigen to accelerate the design of immunotherapy.

Immunoglobulin

Basic concepts

Immunoglobulin (Ig for short) is an antibody protein produced by B cell differentiation. It is a type of plasma protein. Its main function is to identify and neutralize foreign antigens (such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, etc.). It is a core component of the humoral immune response.

chemical structure

The basic unit of immunoglobulin consists of twoHeavy chainwith twoLight chainComposition, Y-shaped structure:

Fab area:Located at the upper end of the Y shape, it is responsible for binding to antigens and is specific.
Fc area:Located at the lower end, it is responsible for combining with immune cells (such as macrophages and complement system) to initiate immune responses.

Main types and functions

IgG：The highest content in blood (about 75%), it can pass through the placenta and provide passive immunity to newborns; it can promote phagocytosis and complement activation.
IgA：Mainly found in mucosal secretions (such as saliva, milk, intestinal fluid), it can prevent pathogens from adhering to epithelial surfaces.
IgM：The first antibodies to appear form a pentameric structure and have strong agglutination and complement activation capabilities.
IgE：It is closely related to allergic reactions and can combine with mast cells and basophilic white blood cells to trigger the release of histamine.
IgD：It mainly exists on the surface of B cells and participates in the regulation of B cell activation and early antibody production.

Physiological effects of immunoglobulins

Neutralizing effect:Antibodies can neutralize viruses and toxins, making them less infective.
Conditioning effect:Antibodies mark pathogens and promote their clearance by phagocytes.
Complement activation:After the antibody binds to the antigen, it can initiate the complement cascade reaction and destroy the pathogenic cells.
Immune memory:B cells produce memory B cells after being stimulated by antigens, allowing them to quickly produce antibodies when infected again.

clinical application

Diagnostic use:Detection of specific antibodies can be used to determine infection status, such as anti-HBs antibodies (hepatitis B), anti-HIV antibodies, etc.
Therapeutic uses:Injectable immune globulin (such as human immunoglobulin IVIG) can be used to treat immune deficiencies, viral infections, or autoimmune diseases.
Allergy and immune diseases:Elevated IgE is common in asthma and atopic dermatitis; abnormal IgG or IgA is related to immune deficiency or chronic inflammation.

Scientific research and application of immunoglobulins

Modern biotechnology has been able to use monoclonal antibody (Monoclonal Antibody) technology to prepare highly specific antibodies against specific antigens for cancer treatment, autoimmune diseases (such as lupus erythematosus), and the prevention and treatment of emerging infectious diseases. Antibody engineering can also modify the Fc region to extend half-life or enhance immune effects.

Common tests and reference values (adults)

IgG：700–1600 mg/dL
IgA：70–400 mg/dL
IgM：40–230 mg/dL
IgE：< 100 IU/mL（依個體差異而異）

Immunoglobulin IgE Antigens and Antibodies

Basic characteristics of IgE

Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is an antibody with a molecular weight of approximately 190 kDa. It mainly exists in serum at very low concentrations (accounting for approximately 0.001% of all immunoglobulins). IgE has four polypeptide chains (two heavy chains ε and two light chains κ or λ), and its Fc end can bind to the high-affinity receptor (FcεRI) on the surface of mast cells and basophils.

IgE binding to antigen

IgE specifically recognizes and binds to specific antigens (usually allergens). When the allergen enters the body again, it will cross-link the IgE receptors that have been bound to mast cells or basophils, triggering the cells to release a variety of inflammatory mediators, such as histamine, leukotrienes, prostaglandins, etc., triggering typical allergic reactions.

Immune function of IgE

allergic reaction:IgE is the core molecule of type 1 allergic reaction (immediate allergy), which is related to asthma, urticaria, hay fever, atopic dermatitis and other diseases.
Parasite Defense:IgE helps the immune system recognize large parasites (such as worms) and destroy them by activating eosinophils and mast cells.
Immunomodulation:IgE may participate in the regulation of immune balance and affect Th2-type immune responses at low concentrations.

The clinical significance of IgE antibodies

Elevated IgE is common in allergic diseases and parasitic infections. Clinically, allergen types and immune activity can be determined through serum total IgE and specific IgE testing (such as RAST or ImmunoCAP).

Scientific application of interaction between IgE antigen and antibody

Allergen detection:Develop detection reagents using the specific reaction of IgE antibodies to identify common allergens.
Anti-IgE treatment:Monoclonal antibody drugs (such as Omalizumab) can bind to free IgE and prevent it from binding to receptors, and are used to treat severe asthma and chronic urticaria.
Vaccine and immune regulation research:The mechanism of IgE response provides a theoretical basis for the development of immune tolerance treatments.

stem cells

Basic concepts

Stem cells are a type of cells that have the ability to self-renew and differentiate into many different cell types. They play key roles in the growth, tissue repair and regeneration of organisms and are an important basis for regenerative medicine and biomedical research.

Main features

Self-update:It can maintain its own number for a long time through cell division.
Differentiation potential:Can transform into functional cells under certain conditions.

Classification according to differentiation ability

Totipotent stem cells:All cell types that can differentiate into a complete individual, such as a fertilized egg.
Pluripotent stem cells:Can differentiate into various cells derived from the three germ layers, such as embryonic stem cells.
Pluripotent stem cells:Cells that can differentiate into specific tissue systems, such as hematopoietic stem cells.
Unipotent stem cells:Can only differentiate into a single cell type, such as stem cells in the basal layer of the skin.

Classified by source

Embryonic stem cells:Taken from early embryos, they have the strongest differentiation ability.
Adult stem cells:Found in mature organizations and responsible for tissue renewal and repair.
Induced pluripotent stem cells:Genetically reprogrammed from adult cells, it has characteristics similar to embryonic stem cells.

Clinical and research applications

Treatment of blood disorders, such as bone marrow transplant.
Regenerative medicine is used to repair nerves, myocardium, cartilage and other tissues.
Disease modeling and drug testing.
Gene therapy and precision medicine research.

Ethics and Risk

Embryonic stem cells involve bioethical controversies, and stem cell therapy may still involve risks such as tumor formation, immune rejection, and uncontrolled differentiation. Therefore, clinical application requires strict review and testing.

Development status

With the advancement of induced pluripotent stem cells and gene editing technology, stem cell research is developing rapidly and has high potential in disease treatment and tissue regeneration in the future.

Essential nutrients for human body

definition

Essential nutrients for the human body refer to nutrients that the human body cannot synthesize by itself and must be obtained from food, and are indispensable for maintaining normal physiological functions and health.

Main categories

Protein and amino acids:Some amino acids (essential amino acids) need to be supplemented through diet, such as lysine and tryptophan
fatty acid:Essential fatty acids include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, such as linolenic acid and linolenic acid
carbohydrate:Main source of energy, no essential sugars, but dietary fiber helps digestion
Vitamins:A total of 13 kinds, such as vitamin A, B complex, C, D, E, K, etc.
Minerals:Such as calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, potassium, sodium, phosphorus, etc.
water:Necessary to maintain physiological balance and metabolism

Function

Provide energy (protein, fat, carbohydrate)
Make up body tissues (protein, fat, minerals)
Regulate physiological metabolism (vitamins, minerals)
Maintain hydration and electrolyte balance (water, minerals)

Recommended daily intake

Depending on age, gender, and activity level, international and national health agencies have formulated recommended daily intakes (RDA) or appropriate intakes (AI).

deficiency symptoms

Vitamin deficiency: scurvy (vitamin C), night blindness (vitamin A), rickets (vitamin D), etc.
Mineral deficiency: anemia (iron), osteoporosis (calcium), etc.
Insufficient essential amino acids: growth retardation, decreased immunity, etc.

protein

Structure and composition

Proteins are large biomolecules composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. It can be divided into four levels according to its structure:

Primary structure: linear arrangement of amino acids
Secondary structure: such as alpha helices and beta sheets
Tertiary structure: overall three-dimensional configuration
Quaternary structure: the combination of multiple protein units

Function

Proteins have diverse functions in organisms:

Enzymes: speed up chemical reactions
Structural support: such as collagen, keratin
Transport: such as heme transporting oxygen
Signaling: hormones, receptors
Immune Defense: Antibodies

source

Common sources of protein include:

Animal based: meat, fish, eggs, dairy products
Plant-based: legumes, nuts, grains

Intake recommendations

Daily protein intake varies based on an individual's age, gender and activity level. It is generally recommended for adults to consume approximately 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day.

Deficiency and excess

Deficiency: May cause muscle loss, reduced immunity, and growth retardation
Excessive dosage: may increase the burden on the kidneys and affect calcium metabolism

edible oil

Edible oil refers to fats and oils extracted from plant or animal tissues for human cooking or consumption. Its main component is triglyceride, which is a combination of fatty acids and glycerol. It not only provides the body with energy, but is also a medium for absorbing fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.

Fatty acid composition classification

Edible oils are usually divided into three categories based on the degree of saturation of fatty acids in their chemical structure:

Saturated fatty acids: stable in nature and resistant to high temperatures, but mostly solid at room temperature (such as lard, coconut oil). Excessive intake may increase cardiovascular burden.
Monounsaturated fatty acids: mainly Omega-9, which are relatively stable and good for heart health (such as olive oil, tea oil, avocado oil).
Polyunsaturated fatty acids: Contains Omega-3 and Omega-6, which are essential for the human body. They are less stable and cannot withstand high temperatures for a long time (such as soybean oil, sunflower oil, linseed oil).

Smoke point and cooking methods

Smoke point refers to the temperature at which oil begins to produce green smoke when heated. After the smoke point is exceeded, oil will break down to produce free radicals and carcinogens. When choosing oil, it should be adjusted according to the cooking method:

Oil product name	average smoke point	Recommended cooking uses
extra virgin olive oil	190°C	Cold and stir-fried in low-temperature water
brown rice oil	250°C	Generally stir-fried, pan-fried and deep-fried
avocado oil	271°C	High temperature frying and grilling
Tea oil	250°C	Omni-directional cooking (Oriental olive oil)
lard	182°C	Chinese stir-fry, baked puff pastry

Key points for purchasing and saving

In order to ensure the quality and health of edible oil, it is recommended to follow the following principles:

Purchase in small packages: Oils and fats are prone to oxidation and rancidity when exposed to air. It is recommended to purchase small bottles according to household dosage to shorten the service life.
Avoid light and heat insulation: Store in a cool and dry place, away from high temperature or direct sunlight such as gas stoves and windows.
Various oil replacements: Prepare oils with different smoke points for cold salad, stir-fry, and deep-frying to avoid "one oil to the end".
Observe the quality of the oil: If the oil becomes darker, feels sticky, or smells like oil consumption, it means the oil has deteriorated and should not be used anymore.

essential fatty acids

definition

Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs) refer toThe human body cannot synthesize it on its own, fatty acids that must be absorbed through food are crucial for cell membrane structure, inflammatory response, nervous and immune functions, etc.

Main types

Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA):Belongs to omega-3 fatty acids and can be converted into EPA and DHA (with limited efficiency)
Linoleic Acid (LA):An omega-6 fatty acid that can be converted into arachidonic acid (ARA)

Secondary metabolites (non-essential but functionally important)

EPA（Eicosapentaenoic Acid）：Omega-3, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular protection
DHA（Docosahexaenoic Acid）：Omega-3, important for brain and retinal development
ARA（Arachidonic Acid）：Omega-6, involved in immune and inflammatory responses

Physiological function

Maintain cell membrane fluidity and integrity
Synthesize signaling molecules such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes
Support the development of cranial nerves and visual system
Regulate immune and inflammatory responses

main food source

Linolenic acid:Flaxseed oil, perilla oil, walnuts, chia seeds
Linoleic acid:Sunflower oil, soybean oil, corn oil
EPA、DHA：Deep-sea fish (salmon, mackerel, herring), fish oil

deficiency symptoms

dry skin, inflammation
Immunocompromised
Growth retardation (infants and young children)
Vision and nervous system problems

Summarize

Linolenic acid and linoleic acid are humanThe only two essential fatty acids, should be taken in appropriately from the diet and maintain a balanced ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 to promote overall health.

Omega-6 vs. Omega-3

What are Omega-6 and Omega-3?

Omega-6 and Omega-3 are two types of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are essential fatty acids for the human body and must be obtained from the diet. They play an important role in maintaining health and supporting body functions.

Characteristics and sources of Omega-6

Omega-6 fatty acids mainly play a role in promoting cell growth and immune response, but excessive intake may cause chronic inflammation. Common Omega-6s include linoleic acid.

source:Vegetable oils (such as sunflower oil, soybean oil), nuts, seeds, chicken.

Characteristics and sources of Omega-3

Omega-3 fatty acids are anti-inflammatory and support cardiovascular health, and common ones include EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and ALA (alpha-linolenic acid).

source:Deep-sea fish (such as salmon, mackerel), flaxseed oil, chia seeds, walnuts.

Omega-6 to Omega-3 Ratio

A healthy diet should maintain a balance of Omega-6 and Omega-3, with an ideal ratio of about 4:1. However, modern diets often lead to imbalances due to high Omega-6 intake, which increases the risk of chronic diseases.

Health Benefits of Omega-6 vs. Omega-3

Omega-6：Supports skin health, promotes wound healing, and regulates immune function.
Omega-3：Reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, reduces inflammation, and supports brain and vision development.

How to balance the intake of Omega-6 and Omega-3?

Reduce the use of high-Omega-6 oils, such as olive oil instead.
Increase foods rich in Omega-3, such as fish and flaxseed oil.
Avoid overly processed foods, which are often rich in Omega-6 fatty acids.

Omega-3 fatty acid content list

Foods Rich in Omega-3

food	Main Omega-3 Forms	Content (per 100g)
mackerel	EPA、DHA	~4,580 mg
salmon	EPA、DHA	~2,260 mg
sardine	EPA、DHA	~1,480 mg
Herring	EPA、DHA	~2,360 mg
tuna	DHA	~1,330 mg
flaxseed	ALA	~22,800 mg
chia seeds	ALA	~17,550 mg
Walnut	ALA	~9,080 mg
soybean oil	ALA	~6,800 mg
algae oil	DHA	~4,000–10,000 mg

Omega-3 Type Description

ALA (alpha-linolenic acid): Mainly derived from plants, such as flax seeds, chia seeds, and walnuts.
EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid): Mainly from deep-sea fish, important for cardiovascular health.
DHA (docosahexaenoic acid): Mainly derived from deep-sea fish and seaweed, important for brain and retina health.

Recommended daily intake

ALA: Approximately 1.6 g for men and 1.1 g for women
EPA + DHA: Recommended daily intake for the average adult is 250–500 mg

trans fat

Trans fat is an unsaturated fatty acid. In its molecular structure, hydrogen atoms are located on either side (opposed) of the double bonds of the carbon chain, which makes the fatty acid chain appear linear. Compared with cis fatty acids (the hydrogen atoms are on the same side), trans fats have properties closer to saturated fats, with higher melting points and stability.

Source classification

Trans fats can be divided into two main sources: naturally occurring and artificially processed sources:

Natural source: Found in the meat and dairy products of ruminants such as cattle and sheep. It is produced by bacterial fermentation in the stomach. The harm of this type of natural trans fat to the human body has not yet been determined.
Artificial source: Vegetable oil is converted into semi-solid oil (partially hydrogenated oil) through hydrogenation technology. This process can extend the shelf life of oil, enhance heat resistance, and give food a crispy or smooth texture.

health risks

Trans fat is considered by the medical community to be the type of fat that poses the greatest threat to human health. Its main effects include:

impact projects	Mechanism of action
Dyslipidemia	It also increases low-density lipoprotein (bad cholesterol, LDL) and decreases high-density lipoprotein (good cholesterol, HDL).
cardiovascular disease	Causes inflammation of the vascular endothelium, leading to arteriosclerosis, myocardial infarction or stroke.
Metabolic diseases	May increase insulin resistance and increase risk of type 2 diabetes.

common food

Artificial trans fats are often hidden in processed foods that need to be preserved for a long time or have a special taste:

Baked goods: pie crusts, cookies, cakes, donuts.
Fried food: French fries, chicken nuggets, fried food from roadside stalls (repeated heating at high temperatures will also produce a small amount of trans fat).
Processed spreads: plant-based butter (milk), peanut butter.
Others: Creamer, popcorn, frozen pizza.

Mark recognition

Although most countries have stipulated that packaged foods must declare trans fat content, you still need to pay attention to the following labeling pitfalls:

Zero does not mean none: According to many national regulations, if the food contains less than 0.3 grams of trans fat per 100 grams, it can be labeled as 0.
Keyword check: If the words "hydrogenated vegetable oil", "partially hydrogenated oil", "refined vegetable oil", "converted oil" or "ghee" appear on the ingredient list, it usually means it contains trans fat.
Choose natural oils: Try to use olive oil, sunflower oil or animal crude oil for cooking, and avoid long-term consumption of highly processed hydrogenated oils.

glucose

Structure and properties

Glucose is a monosaccharide, a type of six-carbon sugar (hexose), with the chemical formula C₆H₁₂O₆. It can exist in linear or cyclic form, and mainly exists in cyclic form in aqueous solution.

Function

Glucose is the most important source of energy for the human body and most living things:

Provide energy needed for cell metabolism
Participate in cellular respiration and produce ATP
As the basic unit of glycogen and starch

source

Glucose can be broken down from various types of carbohydrates:

Natural sources: fruits, vegetables, honey
Converted from starch and disaccharides (such as sucrose and maltose) through digestion

blood sugar regulation

The human body regulates glucose concentration in the blood through insulin and glucagon to maintain a constant blood sugar level.

medical applications

Intravenous glucose can be used to replenish energy
Blood glucose testing is an important indicator for diagnosing diabetes

micronutrients

Vitamins (Vitamins) and trace elements (Trace Elements, a type of minerals) are often collectively referred to asMicronutrients. Unlike proteins, fats and carbohydrates that provide energy, micronutrients, although required in very small amounts, are key to maintaining life, promoting growth and regulating physiological functions.

Basic composition

Micronutrients are divided into two main categories:

Vitamins:Belongs to organic compounds. Contains fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble vitamins (B complex, C).
Minerals and trace elements:Belongs to inorganic substances. Contains macrominerals that are in high demand (such as calcium, magnesium, potassium) and trace elements that are in very small demand (such as zinc, iron, selenium, copper, manganese, iodine).

Physiological function

Although micronutrients do not produce heat, they play the following roles:

Enzyme cofactors:Many metabolic reactions require trace elements to act as switches to initiate.
Antioxidant protection:Vitamins C, E and selenium, for example, can protect cells from free radical damage.
Organizational structure:For example, calcium and phosphorus are the main components of bones, and iron is the core of red blood cells that carry oxygen.
Hormone regulation:For example, iodine is an essential raw material for the synthesis of thyroxine.

Differences from Macronutrients

Compare items	Macronutrients	Micronutrients
Contains categories	Carbohydrates, proteins, fats	Vitamins, minerals/trace elements
Main functions	Provide energy and build muscle tissue	Regulate metabolism, synthesize hormones, defend immunity
daily requirement	Usually calculated in grams (g)	Usually calculated in milligrams (mg) or micrograms (mcg)

Excessive intake of micronutrients is not enough. Long-term deficiency will lead to metabolic disorders, but excessive intake (especially fat-soluble vitamins and heavy metal trace elements) may cause toxicity.

vitamins

What are vitamins?

Vitamins Vitamins, also known as vitamins, are organic compounds necessary for the human body to maintain normal metabolism, enhance immune function, and promote growth. Although the body requires smaller amounts, a lack of the vitamin can lead to health problems.

Classification of vitamins

Vitamins are mainly divided into two categories:

Fat-soluble vitamins:Including vitamins A, D, E, and K, these vitamins can be stored in the liver and fat.
Water-soluble vitamins:Including vitamin B complex and vitamin C. These vitamins are usually not stored in the body and need to be supplemented daily.

Functions and sources of various vitamins

Vitamin A:
Function: Promote healthy vision and maintain skin and mucous membrane integrity.

Sources: Carrots, spinach, egg yolks, liver.
Vitamin B complex:
Function: Participates in energy metabolism, supports nervous system and blood health.

Sources: Whole grains, lean meats, dairy products, legumes.
Vitamin C:
Function: Antioxidant, enhance immunity, promote collagen synthesis.

Source: citrus fruits, kiwi, green peppers, strawberries.
Vitamin D:
Function: Promote the absorption of calcium and phosphorus, maintain bone and tooth health.

Sources: Sun exposure, cod liver oil, egg yolks, dairy products.
Vitamin E:
Function: Antioxidant, protects cells from free radical damage.

Sources: Nuts, vegetable oils, green leafy vegetables.
Vitamin K:
Function: Promote blood coagulation and maintain bone health.

Sources: Green leafy vegetables, fermented foods (such as natto), vegetable oils.

Effects of Vitamin Deficiency and Excess

Vitamin deficiencies or excess can have negative health effects:

lack:May cause anemia (B12 deficiency), night blindness (A deficiency), scurvy (C deficiency), etc.
excess:For example, too much vitamin A may cause toxic reactions, and too much vitamin D may cause hypercalcemia.

How to get a balanced intake of vitamins

The safest way to consume a variety of vitamins is through a balanced diet. It is recommended to consume more fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains and healthy proteins. If supplements are needed, a doctor or nutritionist should be consulted to ensure safety and effectiveness.

Vitamin B

Overview

Vitamin B complex is a collective name for a group of water-soluble vitamins that participate in many important physiological functions such as energy metabolism, nerve function, red blood cell production, and cell repair in the body. Since water-soluble vitamins cannot be stored in the body for a long time, they need to be taken in from the diet every day.

Vitamin B complex types and functions

name	chemical name	Main functions	common food sources
B₁	Thiamine	Promote carbohydrate metabolism and nerve conduction	Whole grains, pork, legumes, nuts
B₂	Riboflavin	Assists energy metabolism and maintains skin and eye health	Milk, eggs, green vegetables, liver
B₃	Niacin	Promote energy production, maintain skin and nervous system health	Meat, peanuts, whole grains, fish
B₅	Pantothenic acid	Participate in fatty acid synthesis and decomposition, energy metabolism	Eggs, liver, yeast, brown rice
B₆	Pyridoxine	Participate in amino acid metabolism, erythropoiesis, and neurotransmitter synthesis	Fish, bananas, potatoes, nuts
B₇	Biotin	Assist fat and protein metabolism, maintain skin and hair health	Egg yolk, liver, nuts, soybeans
B₉	Folic acid	DNA synthesis and cell division are important for fetal neural tube development during pregnancy	Dark green vegetables, beans, liver, citrus
B₁₂	Cobalamin	Maintains the nervous system, red blood cell formation, and DNA synthesis	Meat, fish, dairy, eggs

deficiency symptoms

B₁：Beriberi, neuritis, fatigue
B₂：Angular stomatitis, glossitis, dry eyes
B₃：Pellagra (dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia)
B₆：anemia, dermatitis, neurological problems
B₉：anemia, fetal neural tube defects
B₁₂：pernicious anemia, neurodegeneration

Additional suggestions

Since vitamin B complex often works synergistically in energy metabolism, it is recommended to consume a complete set of B complex through a balanced diet, such as whole grains, lean meat, eggs, dairy products and green vegetables. For those who are stressed, stay up late, or are vegetarians, you may consider supplementing with a comprehensive vitamin B complex.

special attention

B₁₂ is almost exclusively found in animal foods, and strict vegetarians should take nutritional supplements.
Excessive amounts of water-soluble vitamins will be excreted in the urine and are generally not easily poisoned.
Cooking and heating may destroy some B groups, so low temperature or steaming is recommended to preserve nutrients.

Vitamin B₃

Vitamin B₃, also known as nicotine (Niacin), is an indispensable water-soluble vitamin for the human body. It plays a central role in cellular energy metabolism, specifically its conversion into the coenzymes NAD and NADP, and is involved in more than 200 biochemical reactions in the body.

main form of existence

Nicotinic acid:It is often used clinically to regulate blood lipids. When used in high doses, it may cause skin flushing.
Nicotinamide:Commonly found in dietary supplements and skin care products, it does not cause flushing and is beneficial in repairing the skin barrier.
Nicotinamide Ribose (NR):A hot topic in anti-aging research in recent years is the precursor to increasing NAD+ levels in the body.

core physiological functions

Energy metabolism:Helps convert carbohydrates, fats and proteins in food into usable energy for cells.
Cardiovascular health:Helps reduce bad cholesterol (LDL) and triglycerides while increasing good cholesterol (HDL).
Nervous system maintenance:Protects nerve cells, supports brain function and prevents cognitive deterioration.
Skin Repair:Strengthen the skin's defense mechanism, slow down photoaging and improve inflammation.

Food source reference

food category	Representative ingredients
Meat and Seafood	Chicken breast, turkey, tuna, salmon, beef
plant source	Peanuts, brown rice, mushrooms, avocado, sunflower seeds

Abnormal manifestations of intake

Deficiencies:Severe deficiency can lead to "Pellagra" (Pellagra), with typical symptoms being dermatitis, diarrhea and dementia. This is less common in modern societies with a balanced diet.
Overdose reaction:Taking too much niacin supplements can cause a "niacin flush," which is characterized by red, itchy, or tingling sensations on the skin of the face and trunk. Although usually harmless, it can be uncomfortable.

When taking vitamin B₃ supplements, remember not to take high-dose supplements on an empty stomach to reduce gastrointestinal upset.

Vitamin B₆

Protein and amino acid metabolism

Vitamin B₆ (mainly its active form pyridoxal phosphate, PLP) is a cofactor for over 100 enzymatic reactions in the body. It is crucial in protein metabolism, responsible for converting amino acids into energy or structural proteins needed by the body. The simplified structural features of its active form involve the binding of pyridoxal to a phosphate group.

neurotransmitter synthesis

B₆ has a decisive influence on brain health, as it is an important mediator in the synthesis of serotonin (regulates mood), dopamine (reward mechanism), and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA, which inhibits neural excitation). Adequate B₆ helps maintain mood stability, reduce anxiety and improve sleep quality.

Heme formation and oxygen transport

In the hematopoietic process, vitamin B₆ participates in the synthesis of heme precursors. If this element is lacking, the oxygen-carrying capacity of red blood cells will decrease, leading to microcytic anemia. It can also regulate the concentration of homocysteine, reduce the risk of vascular endothelial damage, and protect cardiovascular health.

immune system modulation

Vitamin B₆ participates in the production of lymphocytes and antibodies, enhancing the body's ability to fight infections. B₆ consumption is often higher in individuals with chronic inflammation, such as rheumatoid arthritis, and appropriate supplementation can help maintain immune balance.

natural food sources

Vitamin B₆ is widely found in animal and plant foods. Good sources include: chickpeas, bananas, chicken, fish (such as salmon), potatoes, and a variety of whole grains. Since B₆ is easily lost during high-temperature cooking, moderate cooking methods are recommended to retain its nutritional value.

Folic acid Vitamin B₉

Overview

Folic acid (vitamin B₉) is a water-soluble vitamin that is essential for cell division, DNA and RNA synthesis, and red blood cell production. Especially during pregnancy, folic acid can prevent fetal neural tube defects, so it is especially important for childbearing women. The human body cannot synthesize large amounts of folic acid on its own and must be consumed through food or supplements.

Main functions

Assist DNA and RNA synthesis, promote cell division and repair
Promote red blood cell production and prevent macroglobulic anemia
Important nutrients for fetal neural tube development, preventing defects such as spina bifida
Works synergistically with vitamin B₁₂ to maintain normal metabolism and neurological function

deficiency symptoms

Macrogloblastic anemia (oversized red blood cells, abnormal function)
Tiredness, weakness, difficulty concentrating
Deficiency during pregnancy may lead to fetal neural tube defects
Oral ulcers, glossitis
Decreased immunity

Common food sources (sorted from highest to lowest content)

food	Folic acid content (µg/100g)
Pork liver	400
beef liver	200
chicken liver	140
spinach	194
mustard	150
cauliflower	120
asparagus	149
alfalfa sprouts	180
mung bean sprouts	125
kale	120
lettuce	136
yeast	1000
chickpeas	172
Lentils	181
black beans	140
peanut	60
orange	30
banana	20
avocado	81
brown rice	20

Recommended daily intake

age group	Recommended daily intake (µg)
aldult	400
pregnant woman	600
lactating women	500
Children (1 to 13 years old)	150～300

Additional suggestions

Pregnant women should supplement folic acid in advance, starting at least one month before pregnancy and ending in the first three months of pregnancy.
Get enough folate from a balanced diet such as dark green vegetables, legumes, liver and fortified cereals.
Folic acid is a water-soluble vitamin and will be partially lost when heated or cooked. It is recommended to cook or steam for a short time to preserve the nutrients.

Vitamin B₁₂

Overview

Vitamin B₁₂ (Cobalamin) is a water-soluble vitamin containing the metal element cobalt, which is essential for red blood cell production, nervous system health and DNA synthesis. The human body cannot synthesize vitamin B₁₂ on its own and must rely on food or supplements.

Main functions

Promote red blood cell production and prevent macroglobulic anemia
Maintain nervous system function and promote myelination
Participate in DNA and RNA synthesis
Promote protein and fat metabolism
Works synergistically with folic acid to maintain normal cell division

deficiency symptoms

macroglobulin anemia
Nerve damage (numbness, tingling, unsteady walking)
Memory loss and cognitive function deterioration
feeling down or depressed
Loss of appetite and indigestion

Common food sources (sorted from highest to lowest content)

food	Vitamin B₁₂ content (µg/100g)
clams	84
beef liver	70
Lamb liver	60
Pork liver	33
scallops	25
Mussels (Mussels)	20
Oyster	16
sardine	12
Caviar (fish eggs)	12
saury	10
mackerel	9
lobster	7
salmon	5
Crab	4.5
cod	3
beef	2.5
chicken	1.3
turkey meat	1.2
egg	1.1
Cheese (hard)	1
milk	0.8
yogurt	0.4

Vegetarians and B₁₂ Supplements

Since vitamin B₁₂ is mainly found in animal foods, vegetarians are particularly susceptible to deficiency. suggestion:

Eat fortified foods such as plant milks, cereals, soy milk, etc. with added B₁₂
Take B₁₂ supplements or sublingual tablets
Regularly test blood B₁₂ concentration to prevent deficiency

Recommended daily intake

age group	Recommended daily intake (µg)
aldult	2.4
pregnant woman	2.6
lactating women	2.8
Children (1 to 13 years old)	0.9～1.8

Absorption and Metabolism

The absorption of vitamin B₁₂ depends on the "intrinsic factor" secreted by the stomach. It can be absorbed in the small intestine only after combining with B₁₂. If intrinsic factor is insufficient (eg, gastrectomy, atrophic gastritis), injection or sublingual supplementation may be required.

Summarize

Vitamin B₁₂ is essential for the nervous system and blood production. People who eat a balanced diet can usually get enough, but vegetarians and the elderly need to pay special attention to supplements to avoid irreversible nerve damage caused by long-term deficiency.

Vitamin C

Overview

Vitamin C (Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin that the human body cannot synthesize by itself and must be ingested from food. It is an important antioxidant, involved in collagen synthesis, immune regulation and iron absorption, and plays a key role in skin, blood vessels and overall health.

Main functions

Promote collagen synthesis and maintain skin, gums, blood vessels and bone health
Powerful antioxidant, scavenge free radicals, reduce oxidative damage to cells
Enhance immune function and improve resistance to infection
Promote non-heme iron absorption and prevent iron deficiency anemia
Participate in the synthesis of neurotransmitters and adrenaline

deficiency symptoms

Bleeding gums and loose teeth
Wound healing slows down
Tiredness, weakness, decreased immunity
Rough skin and bruises
Severe deficiency can lead to scurvy

Risk of overdose

Diarrhea, bloating, gastrointestinal discomfort
Long-term high doses (>2000 mg/day) may increase the risk of kidney stones
May affect certain blood or urine test results

Common food sources (sorted from highest to lowest content)

food	Vitamin C content (mg/100g)
Camu camu	2000
Acerola (Acerola)	1600
Guava	200
bell pepper (red)	140
black currant	180
kiwi	92
Broccoli	89
strawberry	59
Orange	53
lemon	53
pawpaw	60
mango	36
pineapple	48
spinach	28
tomato	14
cabbage	36
white cauliflower	48
cantaloupe	36
orange	50
potato	20

Recommended daily intake

ethnic group	Recommended daily intake (mg)
adult male	90
adult women	75
pregnant woman	85
lactating women	120
smoker	Recommended extra +35

Additional suggestions

Vitamin C is water-soluble, so it is recommended to take it in divided doses daily to improve utilization.
Cooking can easily cause loss, so it is recommended to eat it raw or heat it for a short time.
Pairing it with iron-rich foods can improve iron absorption.
Under normal circumstances, you can get enough from fruits and vegetables, and supplements are suitable for those with higher needs.

Vitamin D

Overview

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin whose main function is to help the body absorb calcium and phosphorus, maintain the health of bones and teeth, and participate in the regulation of the immune system. Vitamin D can be synthesized by the skin through sunlight exposure, or it can be obtained through food intake or supplements.

Main functions

Promote intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus to maintain bone health
Prevent osteoporosis and rickets
Enhance immune system function
Helps muscle contraction and nerve conduction
Participate in the regulation of cell growth and differentiation

The Difference Between Vitamin D₂ and Vitamin D₃

project	Vitamin D₂ (Ergocalciferol)	Vitamin D₃ (Cholecalciferol)
source	Mainly from plants (such as yeast, mushrooms)	Mainly derived from animals (such as cod liver oil, egg yolk) and skin synthesized by sun exposure
chemical structure	Derived from Ergosterol	Derived from cholesterol (7-Dehydrocholesterol)
stability	Less stable under light and heat	More stable and not easy to decompose
bioavailability	Human body utilization efficiency is low	High absorption and utilization rate by human body
Blood concentration maintenance time	Shorter action time	It has a long action time and is effective in maintaining blood concentration.
common in	Fortified plant milk, supplements (type D₂)	Fish, egg yolks, liver, supplements (type D₃)

deficiency symptoms

Children: Rickets (softening and deformation of bones)
Adults: osteomalacia, osteoporosis
Decreased immunity, easily tired, depressed mood

food source

Fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines)
cod liver oil
yolk
beef liver
Fortified dairy products vs. plant-based milks
Sun-baked mushrooms (contains vitamin D₂)

Recommended daily intake (adults)

The general recommended daily intake is about 10 to 20 micrograms (400 to 800 IU). The actual requirement varies depending on age, skin color, sun exposure time and living environment.

Vitamin E

Overview

Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin whose main components are tocopherols and tocotrienols. It is a powerful antioxidant that can protect cell membranes from free radical oxidative damage, delay aging, and maintain immune and cardiovascular health.

Main functions

Antioxidant, protecting cell membrane lipids from oxidation
Delay aging, maintain skin elasticity and health
Promote blood circulation and prevent thrombosis
Enhance immune function and resist free radical damage
Helps with nervous system and reproductive health
Synergizes with vitamin C to enhance antioxidant capacity

deficiency symptoms

Muscle weakness, movement disorders
Anemia (caused by oxidative damage to red blood cell membranes)
Blurred vision or retinal damage
Decreased immune function
Nervous system disorders, especially those with long-term malabsorption

Risk of overdose

Nausea, diarrhea, headache
Long-term high doses may interfere with vitamin K function and increase the risk of bleeding
May interact with anticoagulant drugs

Common food sources (sorted from highest to lowest content)

food	Vitamin E content (mg/100g)
wheat germ oil	149
Sunflower oil	41
almond	25
hazelnut	15
peanut oil	15
Safflower seed oil	14
peanut	8.3
Sesame	7.8
avocado	2.1
spinach	2.0
mango	1.8
kiwi	1.5
yolk	1.4
olive oil	1.2
pumpkin	1.0
tomato	0.9
carrot	0.7
apple	0.5
salmon	0.4
milk	0.1

Recommended Daily Amount (RDA)

ethnic group	Recommended daily intake (mg α-TE)
adult male	15
adult women	15
pregnant woman	15
lactating women	19
Children (1 to 13 years old)	6～11

Additional suggestions

It is recommended to give priority to food intake, with vegetable oils and nuts being the main sources.
Vitamin E is fat-soluble, so it is recommended to take it with fat-containing foods to improve absorption.
Supplements are often found in the form of alpha-tocopherol, and long-term high-dose supplementation should be avoided.
Taking it together with vitamin C, selenium, and beta-carotene can enhance the antioxidant effect.

Essential minerals for human body

definition

Essential Minerals are inorganic elements that the human body cannot synthesize on its own and must be ingested from food. They are essential for maintaining physiological functions, bone health, nerve conduction and metabolic reactions.

Classification

According to the amount required by the human body, it can be divided intoLots of mineralsandtrace minerals：

Macrominerals

Calcium (Ca):Forms bones and teeth, participates in muscle contraction and nerve conduction
Phosphorus (P):Composes DNA, ATP and bones, and participates in energy metabolism
Potassium (K):Maintain intracellular fluid balance, nerve and muscle function
Sodium (Na):Regulates body fluids and blood pressure, and participates in nerve impulse conduction
Magnesium (Mg):Coenzyme function, muscle and nerve coordination, bone health
Chlorine (Cl):Maintains acid-base balance of body fluids and is a component of gastric acid
Sulfur(S):Found in amino acids and proteins, involved in detoxification metabolism

Trace Elements

Iron (Fe):Components of heme and myoglobin, transport oxygen
Zinc (Zn):Involved in immunity, wound healing and enzyme function
Copper (Cu):Assists iron metabolism and antioxidant enzyme effects
Iodine(I):Constitutes thyroxine and regulates metabolism
Selenium (Se):Antioxidant system ingredient that protects cells from oxidative damage
Manganese (Mn):Bone development and metabolic enzyme function
Chromium (Cr):Help insulin regulate blood sugar
Molybdenum (Mo):Participate in the metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids and uric acid

Function overview

Maintain healthy bones and teeth (such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium)
Participate in energy and enzyme metabolism (such as zinc, iron, copper, selenium)
Normal functioning of nerves and muscles (such as sodium, potassium, calcium)
Regulate hormonal and immune function (such as iodine, zinc)

Problems that may result from lack of

Osteoporosis (calcium deficiency)
anemia (iron deficiency)
Goiter (iodine deficiency)
Decreased immunity and slow wound healing (zinc deficiency)

Summarize

Although the human body has different requirements for essential minerals, each one is indispensable for health. A balanced diet ensures adequate intake of these elements and avoids health risks caused by deficiencies or excesses.

Human needs for calcium

Structural building blocks of bones and teeth

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body, 99% of which is stored in bones and teeth. It exists in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals and provides physical hardness and structural support to the tissue. Bones are also a storehouse of calcium. When the calcium concentration in the blood is insufficient, the body will release bone calcium to maintain physiological balance. Its mineral structural formula can be expressed as:

Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂

Muscle contraction and nerve message transmission

The remaining 1% calcium ions present in the blood and extracellular fluid are essential for maintaining vital signs. Calcium ions entering muscle cells trigger muscle fiber contraction; in nerve cells, calcium is a key signal that initiates the release of neurotransmitters. A lack of calcium ions may cause numbness in the hands and feet, twitching, or irregular heartbeats.

Physiological mechanism of coagulation

In the process of hemostasis after injury to the human body, calcium ions act as the fourth coagulation factor. It participates in the cascade reaction that converts prothrombin into thrombin. Without calcium, blood will have difficulty coagulating normally. This function ensures that when blood vessels are damaged, clots can form in time to prevent massive blood loss.

Intake sources and absorption aids

Good sources of calcium include dairy products, dark green vegetables, soy products, and small fish with bones. It is worth noting that the absorption of calcium is extremely dependent on the conversion of vitamin D, and the single intake should not be too high (less than 500 mg is recommended) to ensure that the intestines can effectively absorb and utilize it.

Intake needs at each stage of life

Adolescence is the peak period of bone accumulation, and after menopause in adult women, the rate of bone loss will increase sharply due to the decrease in estrogen. For the elderly, adequate calcium combined with moderate weight training is the most effective strategy to prevent osteoporosis and fractures.

trace elements

What are trace elements?

Trace elements refer to elements that are required by the human body in very small amounts but are essential. They are mainly involved in the regulation and maintenance of various physiological functions. Although its demand is small, it has a profound impact on health and life activities.

Common trace elements

Trace elements necessary for the human body mainly include the following:

Iron (Fe):Participates in the production of hemoglobin and helps transport oxygen.
Zinc (Zn):Promote immune system function and participate in the regulation of enzyme activity.
Iodine(I):Supports the synthesis of thyroid hormones and maintains metabolic balance.
Selenium (Se):Has antioxidant effects and protects cells from damage.
Copper (Cu):Involved in iron metabolism and collagen formation.
Manganese (Mn):Supports bone health and participates in energy metabolism.
Chromium (Cr):Helps regulate blood sugar and enhances the action of insulin.

Functions and effects of trace elements

The functions of trace elements in the human body include:

Participate in the regulation of enzyme activity and affect metabolic reactions.
Supports the immune system and enhances resistance.
Maintain normal function of nerves, muscles and bones.
Promote cell growth and repair.

Sources of trace elements

Here are some of the major food sources of common trace minerals:

iron:Red meat, liver, beans, spinach.
Zinc:Seafood (like oysters), nuts, whole grains.
iodine:Iodized salt, kelp, seaweed.
selenium:Brazil nuts, fish, eggs.
copper:Liver, nuts, whole grains.
manganese:Whole grains, nuts, green leafy vegetables.
chromium:Whole grains, meats, vegetables.

Effects of Deficiency and Excess

Deficiency or excess of trace elements may have negative effects on health:

lack:May cause anemia, reduced immunity, thyroid problems, etc.
excess:It may cause toxic reactions, for example, excessive iron may damage the liver, and excessive zinc may suppress immune function.

How to balance the intake of trace elements

It is recommended to consume trace elements through a balanced diet to avoid over-reliance on supplements. Check your physical condition regularly and consult a professional doctor or nutritionist to adjust your diet or supplement strategy if necessary.

Human needs of magnesium

physiological core functions

Magnesium is an indispensable trace element in the human body and participates in more than 300 enzyme reactions. Its most important physiological function is to bind to ATP molecules to keep them stable and perform energy metabolism. The reaction displayed in the browser is as follows:

ATP^4- + Mg²⁺ ⇌ [MgATP]^2-

Nerve and muscle relaxation

Magnesium is known as a natural sedative. It regulates nerve conduction and antagonizes the entry of calcium ions into muscle cells. When there is sufficient magnesium in the body, muscles can effectively relax and prevent cramps and tightness; in terms of the nervous system, it helps relieve stress, stabilize mood, and improve sleep quality.

Cardiovascular and blood pressure regulation

Magnesium is essential for maintaining a stable heart beating frequency. It can help vascular smooth muscles relax, thereby regulating blood pressure. Adequate magnesium intake is significantly associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.

Bone structure maintenance

About 60% of the magnesium in the body is stored in bones. Magnesium is not only a component of bone tissue, but also regulates calcium metabolism and affects the activation of vitamin D, which plays a key role in preventing osteoporosis.

main food source

Magnesium is widely found in natural foods, especially unrefined plant foods. Dark green vegetables (such as amaranth, spinach), nuts and seeds (such as pumpkin seeds, cashews), whole grains (such as brown rice, oats), and dark chocolate are all good sources.

Human needs of zinc

definition

Zinc is an essential trace mineral for the human body. It participates in a variety of enzyme reactions and metabolic processes, and plays an important role in the immune system, cell growth and repair.

Physiological function

Participates in more than 300 enzyme reactions, including DNA synthesis, protein synthesis and cell division
Promote wound healing and tissue repair
Maintain normal functions of taste, smell and appetite
Support the functioning of the immune system and improve resistance to infection
Helps male reproductive function and sperm production
Promote healthy skin and hair

primary source

Seafood (especially oysters and crabs)
Meat (beef, pork, chicken)
Whole grains and nuts (pumpkin seeds, cashews)
Legumes and Dairy Products

deficiency symptoms

Decreased immunity, prone to infection
Delayed wound healing
Abnormal sense of taste and smell
Loss of appetite and growth retardation (especially in children)
Dermatitis or hair loss

Intake recommendations

Recommended daily intake for adults: about 8 to 11 mg (varies according to gender and age)
A balanced diet can meet your needs, long-term vegetarians should pay attention to their intake

excessive effects

Excessive intake may cause nausea, abdominal pain, and immune function suppression
Long-term high-dose supplementation can interfere with copper absorption

Comparison table of zinc content in food

Unit: mg/100 grams of food (ordered from high to low)

food name	Zinc content (mg/100g)	Remark
Oyster	25.0 ~ 50.0	The highest zinc content among natural foods and excellent absorption rate
beef liver	12.0	Rich in zinc and vitamin A, but high in cholesterol
pumpkin seeds	10.0	Great plant-based source of zinc, rich in healthy fats
Sesame	7.8	Rich in zinc and calcium, but phytic acid affects absorption
Beef (lean meat)	6.0 ~ 9.0	High bioavailability, main animal source
cashew	5.5	Rich in lipids and zinc, moderate intake is beneficial to health
Pork (lean meat)	3.5 ~ 5.0	Common daily sources, good absorption rate
duck	4.2	The zinc content is higher than that of chicken and it is rich in protein
peanut	3.3	Moderate content, but phytic acid affects absorption rate
Lentils	3.0	Common source for vegetarians, moderate to low absorption rate
chicken	1.5 ~ 2.5	Moderate content and good absorption rate
Tofu	2.0	Important source of protein and zinc for vegetarians
oat	2.5	Contains dietary fiber and zinc, suitable for breakfast
shrimp	2.0	Low fat, high protein source, moderate zinc content
egg	1.3	Contains less zinc but has high absorption rate
soy milk	0.8	Low zinc content, suitable for supplementation with other foods
spinach	0.6	Plant-based source, contains oxalic acid which inhibits absorption
milk	0.4	Low content but good absorption rate
white rice	0.8	The content decreases after refining and is higher in brown rice.
apple	0.1	Very low content, not a major source

illustrate

The zinc absorption rate of animal foods is about 40 to 50%, and that of plant foods is about 20 to 30%.
Cereals and beans containing phytic acid will reduce zinc absorption, and the impact can be reduced through soaking or fermentation.
Pairing it with foods rich in protein or vitamin C can help zinc absorption.
Recommended daily intake: approximately 11 mg for men and 8 mg for women.

ferritin

Overview

Ferritin is a globular protein whose main function is to store iron and release it to the body when needed. Ferritin is found in the liver, spleen, bone marrow and muscles. It is an important indicator of iron reserves in the body and is very important for blood production, energy metabolism and immune function.

Main functions

Store iron and maintain iron balance in the blood
Provide iron for red blood cell production and support heme synthesis
Protects cells from oxidative damage caused by free iron
Supports immune system function and promotes energy metabolism

Blood ferritin index

Normal adult male: 20~300 ng/mL
Normal adult female: 15～150 ng/mL
Low blood ferritin: indicates iron deficiency anemia or insufficient iron stores
High blood ferritin: may be related to inflammation, liver disease, iron excess, or certain chronic diseases

Ferritin deficiency symptoms

Tiredness, weakness, difficulty concentrating
Pale skin and brittle nails
Heart palpitations or shortness of breath
Glossitis, angular stomatitis
Severe deficiency may develop into iron deficiency anemia

Food sources of ferritin

Ferritin itself exists as an iron storage protein in animals, but ferritin in the blood can be increased by supplementing iron-rich foods:

food	Remark
beef liver	Animal-based heme iron, high absorption rate
Pork liver	Rich in heme iron
chicken liver	High in iron content and easily absorbed
Red meat (beef, lamb)	Sources of heme iron
Fish (sardines, salmon)	Contains small amounts of heme iron
Shellfish (clams, oysters, mussels)	Contains high-speed iron, good absorption rate
yolk	Small amount of iron, moderate absorption
Legumes (red beans, lentils, black beans)	Plant-based non-heme iron needs to be combined with vitamin C to promote absorption
Dark green vegetables (spinach, mustard greens)	Contains non-heme iron, low absorption rate
Nuts and seeds (pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds)	Contains non-heme iron
Whole grains (oats, brown rice)	Non-heme iron sources
Dried fruits (raisins, dates)	plant-based iron
fortified cereals	Adding additional iron can increase blood ferritin
Tofu	Plant-based iron source, moderate absorption
dark chocolate	High iron content, but slightly lower absorption rate

Additional suggestions

People with low ferritin can increase their intake of animal iron (heme iron), such as liver and red meat.
Plant-based iron needs to be paired with vitamin C foods (such as citrus and kiwi fruits) to improve absorption.
Avoid taking it with tea and coffee as the tannins in them inhibit iron absorption.
People with severe iron deficiency can take iron supplements as recommended by doctors and have their blood ferritin tested regularly.

Selenium Human Requirements

Overview

Selenium is an essential trace mineral that has a powerful antioxidant effect and can protect cells from free radical damage. Selenium is also a component of several important enzymes (such as glutathione peroxidase), which play a key role in the immune system, thyroid function and reproductive health.

Main functions

As a core element of antioxidant enzymes (such as glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin reductase)
Protect cells from oxidative stress and free radical damage
Maintain normal metabolism of thyroid hormones
Enhance immunity and promote antibody production
Support male sperm formation and reproductive function
Synergizes with vitamin E to delay cell aging

deficiency symptoms

Decreased immune function and susceptibility to infection
Muscle weakness or pain (Keshan disease)
cardiomyopathy
Abnormal thyroid function
Male infertility or reduced sperm motility
Decreased antioxidant capacity and accelerated aging

Risk of overdose

Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
Hair loss, brittle nails
Metallic breath ("garlic breath")
Nervous system abnormalities or fatigue
Long-term high doses may cause selenium poisoning

Common food sources (sorted from highest to lowest content)

food	Selenium content (µg/100g)
brazil nuts	1900
pig kidney	220
tuna	180
sardine	140
salmon	130
scallops	120
shrimp	110
crab	100
Oyster	95
egg	60
beef	40
pork	38
chicken breast	36
brown rice	32
Whole wheat bread	28
Tofu	20
peanut	14
onion	12
garlic	10
spinach	8

Recommended Daily Amount (RDA)

ethnic group	Recommended daily intake (µg)
adult male	55
adult women	55
pregnant woman	60
lactating women	70
Children (1 to 13 years old)	20～40

Additional suggestions

Sufficient selenium can be obtained through a balanced diet, and no additional supplements are required.
Brazil nuts are extremely high in selenium, so eating 1 to 2 nuts a week can meet your needs and avoid overdose.
Combined with vitamin E, it can enhance the antioxidant effect.
Blood selenium concentrations should be evaluated by a physician before long-term use of supplements.

bioactive substances

definition

Bioactive Compounds refer to chemical substances from nature or synthesis that can interact with living organisms and produce physiological or pharmacological effects on them. Its sources are not limited to plants, but also include animals, fungi, bacteria, marine organisms, and even minerals.

primary source

plant:Such as anthocyanins, green tea polyphenols, lutein
animal:Such as EPA, DHA and collagen peptides in fish oil
Fungi and Bacteria:Such as penicillin, beta-glucan, probiotic metabolites
Marine life:Such as red algae polysaccharides and seaweed phenolic compounds
Mineral or soil derivatives:Natural antibacterial substances isolated from kaolin clay

Common functions

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory
Regulate immune system
Antibacterial, antiviral
Lower blood lipids, lower blood sugar
Neuroprotective, anti-cancer potential

Application areas

Nutritional health:Main active ingredients of functional foods and health foods
Drug Development:Many drugs originate from natural biologically active substances
cosmetic:Such as anti-aging, sun protection and whitening ingredients
agriculture:Natural pesticides, plant protection agents, etc.

Intake recommendations

It is generally recommended to consume bioactive substances through a diverse and natural diet, avoid relying on high-dose supplements, and seek professional advice based on personal health conditions.

Functional phytochemicals

definition

Functional phytochemicals refer to natural chemicals from plants that havebiological activity, can have a positive health impact on the human body and assistPrevent chronic diseases、Improve physiological functions, but it is not an essential nutrient for the human body.

Common classifications and representative substances

Flavonoids:Such as anthocyanins, quercetin, catechins
— Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and protective of blood vessels
Carotenoids:Such as lutein, zeaxanthin, beta-carotene
—Protect vision and antioxidant
Polyphenols:Such as green tea polyphenols, resveratrol
— Delay aging and promote cardiovascular health
Sulfur Compounds:Such as allicin, isothiocyanate
— Antibacterial, anti-cancer, detoxifying
Phytosterols:such as beta-sitosterol
— Reduce cholesterol absorption

Main functions

Scavenge free radicals and reduce oxidative stress
Anti-inflammatory, regulate immune response
Promotes cardiovascular, liver and visual health
May inhibit cancer cell growth and spread

Source of intake

Functional phytochemicals are widely found in natural plant foods:

Dark fruits and vegetables (such as blueberries, tomatoes, spinach)
Legumes and whole grains
Herbs, teas, olive oil

Things to note

The intake of functional phytochemicals should come from a natural diet rather than relying on high-dose supplements. Not everyone has the same response to all phytochemicals, and individual differences and dosages need to be considered.

polyphenols

definition

Polyphenols are a class of natural compounds found in plants with multiple phenolic hydroxyl structures and are known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and other health-promoting properties.

type

Flavonoids:Such as anthocyanins, flavonols and isoflavones.
Phenolic acids:Such as chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid and ellagic acid.
Tannins:Commonly found in red wine and tea.
Lignans:Such as lignans in flax seeds.

source

fruit:Such as grapes, blueberries, apples and citrus.
vegetable:Such as onions, spinach and broccoli.
Drinks:Such as green tea, black tea and coffee.
Grains and Nuts:Such as oats, flax seeds and walnuts.

health benefits

Antioxidant effect:Neutralizes free radicals, reducing oxidative stress and cell damage.
Anti-inflammatory effect:Reduces the risk of chronic inflammation.
Promote cardiovascular health:Helps improve blood vessel function and lower blood pressure and cholesterol.
Support gut health:Promote the growth of beneficial bacteria and improve intestinal microbiota.
Reduce cancer risk:May inhibit cancer cell proliferation and induce apoptosis.

application

Food industry:Used as a natural antioxidant to extend the shelf life of food.
Health products:Polyphenol extracts are formulated into dietary supplements and used to promote health.
cosmetic:As a skin care ingredient used to reduce signs of aging and protect skin from UV damage.

Intake recommendations

A balanced diet that includes a variety of polyphenol-rich foods and a daily intake of fresh fruits, vegetables, and healthy drinks can help increase polyphenol intake.

anthocyanin

definition

Anthocyanins are natural water-soluble pigments that belong to the flavonoid class and are widely present in the fruits, flowers and leaves of various plants. They are responsible for the blue, purple and red colors.

source

fruit:Such as blueberries, blackberries, cherries, grapes.
vegetable:Such as purple cabbage and eggplant skin.
cereals:Such as black rice and purple glutinous rice.

health benefits

Antioxidant effect:Neutralizes free radicals and reduces oxidative damage.
Anti-inflammatory effect:Inhibit inflammatory response and protect cell health.
Promote cardiovascular health:Helps improve blood vessel function and reduce the risk of high blood pressure and heart disease.
Support vision health:Improve night vision and protect eyes from photo-oxidative damage.
Enhance immunity:Regulates the immune system and fights infection and disease.

stability

The stability of anthocyanins is affected by many factors, including light, temperature and pH. In acidic environments, the color is more stable and usually appears red.

Intake recommendations

Eat an appropriate amount of anthocyanin-rich fruits and vegetables every day to maintain a balanced diet.
Avoid cooking at high temperatures for long periods of time to reduce the loss of anthocyanins.

application

Food industry:Added as natural coloring to beverages, jelly and other products.
Health products:The extract is formulated into dietary supplements for antioxidant and health care purposes.
cosmetic:Used in skin care products to anti-aging and brighten skin tone.

Lutein

Lutein is a carotenoid and antioxidant that is widely found in dark green vegetables and certain fruits. It plays an important role in protecting the eyes and preventing vision deterioration. Especially as we age, we need to supplement lutein to maintain eye health.

The effect of lutein

Filter blue light: Lutein can filter high-energy blue light and reduce the damage of blue light to the retina.
Prevent retinal macular degeneration: Lutein reduces oxidative damage caused by free radicals and reduces the risk of age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
Improve eyesight: Moderate intake of lutein helps enhance visual acuity and reduce eye fatigue.
Antioxidant function: As an antioxidant, lutein protects cells from free radical damage and contributes to overall health.

Foods rich in lutein

Lutein is abundant in a variety of foods, especially dark green vegetables and orange fruits and vegetables.

spinach
kale
broccoli
bell pepper
corn
yolk

Recommended intake of lutein

The recommended daily intake of lutein varies from person to person, but is usually 6 to 10 mg. Adequate intake of lutein can be achieved through a balanced diet or nutritional supplements, especially for modern people who use electronic devices for long periods of time.

beta-carotene

definition

Beta-carotene is a pigment naturally found in plants. It is a carotenoid and the precursor of vitamin A. It has antioxidant functions and can be converted into vitamin A in the human body.

source

vegetable:Carrots, pumpkin, sweet potatoes, spinach, kale.
fruit:Mango, apricot, cantaloupe, orange.

health benefits

Promote vision health:Vitamin A helps maintain retinal function and improve night vision.
Antioxidant effect:Neutralizes free radicals, reduces oxidative stress, and protects cells from damage.
Supports the immune system:Boosts immunity to help fight infection and disease.
Improve skin health:Reduces skin dryness and promotes skin repair and regeneration.

Intake recommendations

It is recommended to obtain beta-carotene through consuming natural foods, such as eating more fresh vegetables and fruits, to avoid side effects caused by overdose of supplements.

Things to note

Excessive intake may cause yellowing of the skin (carotenemia) but is usually harmless.
Smokers should avoid high-dose supplements, which may increase lung cancer risk.
Taking it with fat can improve the absorption rate. It is recommended to consume it with healthy fats.

application

Food industry:Used as a natural coloring in beverages, dairy products and desserts.
Health products:Beta-carotene is made into dietary supplements to support vitamin A needs.
cosmetic:Used in skin care products to provide antioxidant and moisturizing effects.

Lycopene

chemical properties

Lycopene is a naturally occurring carotenoid, a terpene compound, with the chemical formula C₄₀H₅₆, has a highly unsaturated structure and appears bright red. Because it contains multiple conjugated double bonds, it has excellent antioxidant capabilities.

primary source

Lycopene is mainly found in red fruits and vegetables, especially tomatoes and their products. Others such as watermelon, grapefruit, red pepper and papaya also contain varying degrees of lycopene.

health benefits

Antioxidant effect:Lycopene neutralizes free radicals and reduces oxidative damage to cells.
Cardiovascular Protection:Helps lower low-density cholesterol (LDL) and reduces the risk of atherosclerosis.
Anti-cancer potential:Studies have pointed out that lycopene is associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, etc.
Skin protection:It can slow down the damage caused by ultraviolet rays to the skin and has anti-aging effect.

Absorption and uptake

Lycopene is fat-soluble, so consuming it with fat can improve absorption. Cooking or processing (such as tomato sauce) can also increase its bioavailability.

Application areas

Healthy Food and Nutritional Supplements
natural food colorants
Cosmetic anti-aging formulas

Things to note

Lycopene is a safe natural ingredient and has no side effects when taken in the general diet. However, excessive use of supplements should still follow professional advice to avoid disturbing nutritional balance.

Cucurbitacin

definition

Cucurbitacin is a natural compound found in Cucurbitaceae plants.triterpenoids, with itsStrong bitter taste and various biological activitiesfamous. Its name comes from the Cucurbitaceae family.

Source plant

Cucurbitacins are mainly found in the following plants, especially their stems, leaves, peels and immature fruits:

cucumber
Momordica charantia
gourd
loofah
Pumpkin (wild species)
Watermelon (wild species or genetic mutation): Normally cultivated watermelons contain almost no cucurbitacins, but some wild species or mutants may produce cucurbitacins, causing an abnormal bitter taste, and occasionally poisoning cases have been reported.

chemical properties

belongtriterpenoids（Triterpenoids）
Known species include: Cucurbitacin A, B, C, D, E, I, etc.
Extremely bitter and cytotoxic

biological activity

Anticancer activity:Induces cancer cell apoptosis, autophagy, and prevents cell cycle
Anti-inflammatory and immune modulation:Inhibits inflammatory pathways such as NF-κB
Antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic:Inhibitory effect on certain pathogens

Toxicity and Precautions

Cucurbitacin is highly toxic, and high doses can causeNausea, vomiting, diarrheaevengastrointestinal bleeding
Overly bitter fruits and vegetables from the cucurbitaceae family may contain excessive amounts of cucurbitacins.should not be eaten
If watermelon appearsbitterness, should be discarded immediately

Applications and potential

asanticancer candidate compounds, has potential in drug research and development
naturalplant defense substances, toxic to insects and microorganisms

Summarize

Cucurbitacins are powerful bioactive natural compounds that are ubiquitous in plants of the Cucurbitaceae family, including some wild watermelons. Although it has anti-cancer potential, special attention should be paid to its toxicity, and fruits and vegetables with high content should not be consumed.

curcumin

definition

Curcumin is a natural polyphenolic compound extracted from the rhizome of the turmeric plant and is known for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and other biological activities.

source

Mainly derived from turmeric (Curcuma longa), a plant commonly used in Indian cuisine and traditional herbal medicine.

health benefits

Anti-inflammatory effect:It can inhibit inflammation-related molecules and reduce the risk of chronic inflammation.
Antioxidant properties:Neutralizes free radicals and protects cells from damage.
Promote brain health:May help improve memory and reduce Alzheimer's risk.
Support cardiovascular health:Helps lower cholesterol and blood pressure and improve blood vessel function.
Anti-cancer potential:May inhibit cancer cell growth and promote cancer cell apoptosis.

How to use

Curcumin is available as a dietary supplement or through diet, such as using turmeric powder in cooking or adding it to milk to make golden milk.

Absorption rate

Curcumin has a low absorption rate in the human body and can be paired with piperine in black pepper to significantly increase bioavailability.

Things to note

Long-term or high-dose use may cause digestive discomfort.
Users of certain medications (such as those on anticoagulants) should consult their doctor before use.
Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding should use with caution.

Catechin

definition

Catechin is a polyphenolic compound naturally found in tea, cocoa and some fruits. It belongs to the flavonoids and has antioxidant and various physiological activities.

type

Epigallocatechin (EGC)
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)
Epicatechin (EC)
Epicatechin gallate (ECG)

source

Green tea (highest in EGCG)
Oolong tea and black tea (content changes due to fermentation)
Cocoa and dark chocolate
Fruits such as apples and blueberries

effect

Antioxidant and anti-free radical
Anti-inflammatory effect
May promote cardiovascular health
Potentially helpful for metabolism
Has antibacterial and antiviral potential

security

Daily intake of tea is generally safe
High-dose supplements may burden the liver, so be careful

Green tea polyphenols and catechins

Polyphenols

Polyphenols are a large class of compounds naturally occurring in plants, characterized by multiple phenolic hydroxyl groups (–OH) in their molecular structure. Polyphenols are widely found in tea, fruits, vegetables and red wine and haveAntioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatoryand other biological activities.

Flavonoids

Flavonoids are an important subclass of polyphenols and generally have two benzene rings (A ring and B ring) and an oxygen-containing middle C ring. Flavonoids are further divided into several subclasses, including:

Flavones
Flavonols
Anthocyanidins
Isoflavones
Catechins

Green Tea Polyphenols

The main active ingredients in green tea belong to polyphenols, among whichCatechins account for about 60%–80%, is the most important functional compound. The rest also include small amounts of flavonols (such as Kaempferol, Quercetin) and phenolic acids (such as gallic acid).

Catechins

Catechin isA type of flavonoid, so it also belongs toPolyphenols → flavonoids → catechinshierarchical structure. The main catechins in green tea include:

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG, Epigallocatechin gallate)
Epigallocatechin (EGC, Epigallocatechin)
Epicatechin gallate (ECG, Epicatechin gallate)
Epicatechin (EC, Epicatechin)

relationship summary

in green teapolyphenols(major category) withFlavonoidsis the main component, and among themCatechinIt is also the most abundant and active subclass of flavonoids. in other words:

Polyphenols ⟶ Flavonoids ⟶ Catechins

Therefore, green tea polyphenols are dominated by catechins, which are the main source of green tea’s health benefits.

capsaicin

definition

Capsaicin is the main pungent ingredient in chili peppers. It is an alkaloid compound that can bind to the human body's pain and temperature receptors to produce a burning sensation.

chemical properties

Molecular formula: C₁₈H₂₇NO₃
Belongs to vanilloid amine compounds
Stable to heat and not easily decomposed by cooking

source

Capsicum fruit (Capsicum genus)
The content is affected by the type and maturity of peppers

effect

Binds to TRPV1 receptors to produce pungent and burning sensations
Promote metabolism and energy consumption
Has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential
Can be used as an external analgesic ointment to relieve neuralgia

application

Food Seasoning and Preservation
Medical pain relief (such as patches, ointments)
Self-defense and military police use (pepper spray)

security

Generally safe when consumed in moderation
Overdose may cause gastrointestinal upset or burning
Avoid eye and mucous membrane irritation when exposed to high concentrations

Quercetin

definition

Quercetin is a natural flavonoid polyphenol compound that is widely found in fruits, vegetables and tea. It has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

chemical properties

Molecular formula: C₁₅H₁₀O₇
Belongs to flavonoids and has a polyhydroxyl structure
Not easily soluble in water, soluble in ethanol and organic solvents

source

Onions, green peppers, apples, berries
Tea and red wine
Certain spices such as thyme, chamomile

effect

Antioxidant: scavenge free radicals and protect cells from oxidative damage
Anti-inflammatory: Reduces levels of inflammatory markers
Cardiovascular protection: may improve blood lipids and vascular function
Anti-allergic and immunomodulatory effects
Antiviral and antitumor potential (in vitro studies)

security

Generally safe for ingestion from food
Be aware that high-dose supplements may cause gastrointestinal discomfort or interfere with drug metabolism

Saponin

definition

Saponins are a class of naturally occurring compounds in plants, consisting of sugars and triterpene or steroid structures. They have foaming properties and are widely found in medicinal plants and certain foods.

source

Legumes:Beans, peas, lentils.
Medicinal plants:Ginseng, licorice, centella asiatica.
other:Quinoa, oats, spinach, tea.

health benefits

Antioxidant effect:Neutralizes free radicals and reduces cell damage.
Anti-inflammatory effect:Inhibit inflammatory response and protect body tissue health.
Supports the immune system:Enhance immunity and improve the ability to resist diseases.
Promote cardiovascular health:Helps lower cholesterol and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Anti-cancer potential:May inhibit tumor cell proliferation and induce apoptosis.

application

Food industry:Used in beverages and processed foods as a natural emulsifier and surfactant.
Drugs and health products:The extract is used in products that strengthen immunity and fight inflammation.
cosmetic:Used in cleansing products such as facial cleansers and shampoos to have a lathering and cleansing effect.

Things to note

Ingestion of high doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort such as diarrhea or bloating.
Some saponins may be toxic and caution should be exercised when consuming plants of unknown origin.
You should have a balanced diet and a diverse intake of natural foods rich in saponins.

polysaccharide

definition

Polysaccharides are high-molecular carbohydrates composed of multiple monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. They are widely found in animals, plants and microorganisms and have a variety of biological activities and functions.

Classification

Storage polysaccharides:Such as starch and glycogen, which are mainly used as energy reserves.
Structural polysaccharides:Such as cellulose and chitin, used to build cell walls and supporting structures.
Functional polysaccharides:Such as soluble dietary fiber and polysaccharides with immunomodulatory effects.

source

plant:Such as mushroom polysaccharide, aloe polysaccharide, wolfberry.
animal:Such as chitin and hyaluronic acid.
microorganism:Such as zymosan and bacterial polysaccharide.

health benefits

Supports the immune system:Regulate immune response and enhance resistance.
Promote gut health:Increase the activity of beneficial intestinal bacteria and improve the intestinal microbiota.
Antioxidant effect:Reduces damage caused by free radicals and protects cell health.
Anti-inflammatory effect:Reduces the risk of chronic inflammation.
Promote cardiovascular health:Reduce blood fat and cholesterol and improve blood vessel function.

application

Food industry:Used in thickeners and stabilizers such as pectin and gum arabic.
Health products:The extract is used in immune-boosting and antioxidant products.
Pharmaceutical field:Used for wound repair and drug delivery, such as hyaluronic acid.
cosmetic:Commonly found in skin care products as a moisturizing and anti-aging ingredient.

Intake recommendations

It is recommended to consume polysaccharides through diet, such as eating more foods rich in dietary fiber, including whole grains, vegetables and mushrooms. Avoid relying on supplements and maintain a varied diet to get full health benefits.

Natural sources of active substances

definition

Natural sources of active substances refer to raw materials from animals, plants, fungi, microorganisms, marine organisms or minerals in nature. The ingredients contained in these sources can produce physiological effects on the human body and have health care, treatment or pharmacological potential.

Main natural source categories

Plant source:Such as tea (catechins), turmeric (curcumin), grapes (resveratrol)
Animal source:Such as fish oil (DHA, EPA), royal jelly, deer antler, ox bile acid
Fungal source:Such as Ganoderma lucidum (polysaccharide), Cordyceps sinensis, Penicillium (penicillin)
Microbial source:Such as natto bacteria (nattokinase), lactic acid bacteria (postbiotics)
Marine life:Such as red algae (phycoerythrin), sea cucumber (saponin), spirulina
Mineral sources:Such as selenium, zinc, sulfur, white clay (detoxification adsorbent)

Common applications

Nutritional supplements:As health food ingredients, such as collagen, lutein
Drug Development:Important natural drugs such as penicillin and paclitaxel
cosmetic:Source of antioxidant, whitening and anti-aging ingredients, such as green tea extract
Agriculture and environmental protection:Natural fungicides, biological control agents, soil conditioners

Advantages and Challenges

advantage:High diversity, good compatibility, natural source, and compound effect
challenge:Low ingredient stability, varying concentrations, and high extraction and purification costs

Summarize

Natural sources are an important source of active substances, which are not only rich and diverse, but also provide unlimited potential for health care and pharmaceutical research and development. Combined with modern science and technology, it helps to utilize these natural resources more efficiently.

super food

definition

Superfoods are whole foods that are extremely nutrient dense and have a variety of health benefits, often rich in antioxidants, vitamins, minerals and other beneficial compounds.

Common types

fruit:Blueberries, kiwis, pomegranates, cranberries, avocados.
vegetable:Kale, broccoli, spinach, red cabbage, sweet potato leaves, chrysanthemum.
Grains and Seeds:Quinoa, flax seeds, chia seeds, pumpkin seeds, black beans, goji berries.
nut:Almonds, walnuts, cashews.
Seaweed:Spirulina, kelp.
other:Green tea, cocoa powder, dark chocolate, honey.

nutritional properties

High antioxidant properties:Helps fight free radicals and reduce cell damage.
Rich in fiber:Promotes digestive health and stabilizes blood sugar levels.
Contains healthy fats:Such as Omega-3 fatty acids, which contribute to cardiovascular health.
Rich in trace elements:Provides essential nutrients such as iron, calcium, magnesium, and zinc.

health benefits

Boosts immunity to fight infection and disease.
Promotes heart health and reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Supports brain function and reduces the risk of cognitive decline.
Improve skin health and delay signs of aging.
Assists with weight management, provides satiety and stable energy.

dietary advice

Incorporate superfoods into your daily diet, such as chia seeds or quinoa for breakfast.
Diversify food sources to ensure nutritional balance.
Avoid relying solely on one superfood and maintain an overall healthy eating habit.

Things to note

Although superfoods have many benefits, they should be consumed in moderation and avoid excessive intake. At the same time, it should be combined with a comprehensive and balanced diet to maximize health effects.

Food Vitamin C Content

List of foods high in vitamin C

Ranking	food name	Vitamin C content (mg/100g)
1	prickly pear	2585
2	chili	2425
3	lime	1200
4	Guava	228
5	kiwi	92.7
6	strawberry	59
7	orange	53.2
8	lemon	53
9	pawpaw	61.8
10	pineapple	47.8

Ganoderma lucidum

What is Ganoderma lucidum?

Ganoderma lucidum is a precious medicinal fungus that has been known as the "immortal grass" or "longevity grass" since ancient times. It belongs to the family Polyporaceae and usually grows on rotten wood or tree trunks. It has an umbrella-like appearance, is shiny and has a hard texture.

Types of Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum can be divided into many types based on their appearance and growth environment. Common ones include:

Chizhi:Reddish-brown in color, it is most commonly used medicinally.
Zizhi:Purple in color and hard in texture.
Black sesame:Dark in color, rare.

Effects of Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma is believed to have a variety of health benefits in traditional Chinese medicine, including:

Enhance immunity:Improve the body's ability to fight disease.
Antioxidant effect:Slow down aging and protect cell health.
Improve sleep:Helps relax nerves and improve sleep quality.
Liver protection:Helps detoxify and protect liver function.

How to use Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum can be used in a variety of ways. Here are some common uses:

Decoction Ganoderma lucidum tea:Slice Ganoderma lucidum and boil it in water to make a light drink.
To make soup:Ganoderma lucidum can be stewed with other ingredients such as chicken or ribs.
Ganoderma powder:Ganoderma lucidum is dried and ground into powder for easy addition to drinks or meals.

Things to note about Ganoderma lucidum

While reishi has many health benefits, you should be careful when using it:

Eat in moderation to avoid excessive amounts that may cause discomfort.
If you have a special physique or are taking medication, you should consult your doctor first.

Probiotics

definition

Probiotics refer to active microorganisms that are beneficial to human health. When taken in sufficient amounts, they can improve intestinal flora, promote digestion, and enhance immunity. They are commonly found in fermented foods and health foods. The World Health Organization defines probiotics as “live microorganisms that, when administered in sufficient quantities, confer a health benefit on the host.”

Common types

Probiotics mainly belong to the following categories:

Lactic acid bacteria:Such as Lactobacillus (Lactobacillus), Lactobacillus bifidus (Lactobacillus bifidus), Lactobacillus acidophilus (Lactobacillus acidophilus).
Bifidobacteria:Such as Bifidobacterium longum, B. breve, B. infantis.
Yeast:The yeast Saccharomyces boulardii, for example, can be used to prevent and treat diarrhea.

Main functions

Modulate intestinal flora:Inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Clostridium difficile, etc.
Enhance immunity:Promote immune system activity and reduce the risk of infection.
Improve gastrointestinal function:Reduces digestive problems such as constipation, diarrhea, and gas.
Synthetic vitamins:Some probiotics can synthesize vitamin B complex and vitamin K.
Reduce allergic and inflammatory reactions:May be helpful for certain allergies and inflammatory bowel disease.

Source of intake

Fermented foods:Yogurt, yogurt, kimchi, miso, natto, etc.
Health food:Probiotic products are available in the form of capsules, powders, chewable tablets, etc.

Intake recommendations

Probiotics need to reach a sufficient amount (generally recommended daily intake is one billion to ten billion units) and can reach the intestinal tract to be effective. Prebiotics (such as oligosaccharides, dietary fiber) can be added to promote their growth when ingested. Avoid taking it at the same time as high temperature, gastric acid or antibiotics to avoid bacterial death or reduced activity.

Things to note

People with extremely low immunity (such as organ transplant patients) should consult a physician before use.
Different strains have different effects, so you should choose the corresponding strain according to your needs.
Long-term and continuous supplementation is required for the effect to be more obvious.

Lactobacilli

Overview

Lactobacillus is a type of probiotic bacteria that can decompose carbohydrates (such as lactose) into lactic acid. They are widely found in the human intestine, oral cavity, vagina and fermented foods. They play an important role in maintaining the balance of intestinal bacteria, promoting immune function and inhibiting the growth of harmful bacteria.

Main functions

Maintain the balance of intestinal flora and inhibit the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria
Promote lactose decomposition and improve lactose intolerance symptoms
Enhance immunity and stimulate intestinal immune response
Promote intestinal peristalsis and reduce constipation and diarrhea
Synthetic vitamins (such as vitamin B complex)
Maintain female vaginal acid-base balance and prevent candida infection

Common Lactobacillus species and characteristics

strain	Main functions
Lactobacillus acidophilus	Colonize in the small intestine, help break down lactose and inhibit E. coli
Lactobacillus casei	Improve gastrointestinal function, reduce diarrhea and allergic reactions
Lactobacillus rhamnosus	Strong antibacterial power, supports the immune system, often used as probiotics for children
Lactobacillus plantarum	Acid and bile salt resistant, helping intestinal health and reducing inflammation
Lactobacillus reuteri	Can secrete antibacterial substances to improve intestinal colic and oral health in infants and young children
Lactobacillus bulgaricus	Often used in yogurt fermentation to promote lactic acid production and inhibit bad bacteria
Lactobacillus fermentum	Has antioxidant properties and can promote immune response
Lactobacillus gasseri	Related to weight management and fat metabolism, helping to reduce abdominal fat
Lactobacillus helveticus	Helps lower blood pressure and absorb calcium
Lactobacillus salivarius	Maintain oral health and reduce plaque formation

Common food sources (foods containing lactobacilli)

food name	illustrate
Yogurt	One of the most common sources of Lactobacillus, containing a variety of live bacteria
Yogurt	Co-fermented by Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Kimchi (Korean or Taiwanese)	Rich in Lactobacillus plantarum and other lactic acid bacteria
Sauerkraut	Natural fermentation produces Lactobacillus, which helps intestinal health
miso	Produce lactic acid bacteria and yeast through fermentation
Cheese (especially Swiss cheese)	Contains Lactobacillus helveticus and Streptococcus thermophilus
Kombucha	Contains probiotics and organic acids to aid digestion
Fermented soy milk products	Contains Lactobacillus plantarum to promote gastrointestinal absorption
Natto	Although it is mainly Natto bacteria, it also promotes a beneficial bacteria environment
Yogurt drinks (such as Yakult)	Contains Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG or similar strains

Health Supplement Suggestions

Daily intake of yogurt or fermented foods containing live bacteria can help maintain intestinal health.
Choose probiotic products labeled with “viable bacterial count” (usually above 10⁸ CFU).
After a course of antibiotics, it is recommended to supplement lactobacilli to rebuild the intestinal flora.
Avoid high temperatures or long-term storage in the sun to prevent the death of beneficial bacteria.
Combining with prebiotics (such as oligosaccharides and inulin) can promote the growth of beneficial bacteria.

Lactobacillus commercially available capsules

Key points for purchasing

Strains are clearly labeled:It is recommended to choose a strain with the complete name and strain number (for example: Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG).
Viable bacteria count indication:The number of live bacteria (CFU) contained in each capsule or serving should be indicated, usually 10⁸~10¹¹ CFU is a common range.
Acid resistance and preservation:Whether the presence of acid-resistant capsules or embedding technology affects the survival rate of bacteria; confirm whether refrigerated storage is required.
Added ingredients:Are there prebiotics (such as inulin, fructooligosaccharides) or other ingredients that help bacterial growth?
Use group:Infants, pregnant women, and people with low immune systems should consult a physician before use.

Common brand comparisons

Brand/Product	Main strains or characteristics	Viable bacteria count (CFU)	Applicable groups / remarks
Culturelle	Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG), many clinical studies	10⁹～10¹⁰	Improve gastrointestinal function and prevent diarrhea
BioGaia	Lactobacillus reuteri, suitable for infants and adults	10⁸～10¹⁰	Oral and digestive tract health
Jarrow Formulas	Multi-strain mix, including Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium	10⁹～10¹¹	For daily health care, various formulas
NOW Foods	Multi-strain formula, clearly labeled and affordable	10⁸～10¹¹	First timers, daily users
Garden of Life	Organically sourced, with prebiotics and whole food formula	10⁹～10¹¹	Those who prefer natural and organic products
Metagenics	Medical-grade formula, patented strains, clinical support	Depends on product	Use only after the advice of a physician or nutritionist
Unified LP33	Contains LP33 strain for allergies	About 10⁹	Improve nasal allergies and immune balance
Health Power Yichangmin	Lactobacillus paracasei BRAP-01, with fructooligosaccharide	About 10⁹～10¹⁰	Intestinal adjustment, sensitive groups
Great Doctor’s Technique Japanese Lactobacillus	Multi-strain acid-resistant design, contains Bifidobacteria	10⁹～10¹⁰	People with weak gastrointestinal function
Adebi Yiduo Lactobacillus	Lactobacillus casei + Fructooligosaccharide	About 10⁹	Daily health use

Compare and organize the key points

The higher the bacterial count, the better. It depends on individual intestinal conditions and tolerance.
Single strains are better for targeting specific issues (e.g. diarrhea, immune modulation), while multi-strains are better for overall gut balance.
If the formula contains prebiotics (such as inulin, oligosaccharides), it can improve the bacterial colonization effect.
Products stored under refrigeration can usually maintain high activity, but are inconvenient to carry; normal temperature products are more convenient to store.

Usage suggestions

The effect can be observed after continuous use for 2 to 4 weeks.
If antibiotics are taken at the same time, it is recommended to wait more than 2 to 3 hours.
Patients with gastrointestinal sensitivities or immune diseases should consult a physician before use.

yeast

Yeast is a type of single-cell fungus that belongs to eukaryotes. They are widely found in nature, especially in environments with high sugar content, such as on fruit surfaces or in flower nectar. Yeast has played a central role in human civilization, with applications ranging from food processing to energy production to basic scientific research.

fermentation metabolism mechanism

The most notable property of yeast is its ability to ferment. In an oxygen-deprived environment, yeast converts sugar into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide.

The basic process of this reaction is: glucose is metabolized by yeast to produce ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy. Carbon dioxide causes the dough to expand during baking, giving it a soft texture, while ethanol is the core ingredient in all alcoholic beverages.

Common types and uses

name	Main purpose	characteristic
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae)	Bread, beer, wine	The most common strain of bacteria, with high fermentation efficiency, is also a commonly used model organism in biological laboratories.
S. pastorianus	Lager	The ability to ferment at lower temperatures is key to producing bottom-fermented beer.
nutritional yeast	Vegetarian seasoning and nutritional supplement	Usually deactivated by heat, it is rich in protein, B vitamins and minerals.

Reproductive mode

The main mode of reproduction of yeast is budding (asexual reproduction). A bud will grow on the surface of the mother cell. As the cell nucleus divides, the bud will separate from the mother cell when it matures and become an independent new cell. Under certain stressful conditions, some yeasts can also reproduce sexually and produce spores.

Industrial and scientific research applications

Baking and brewing: Using fermentation products to make bread, beer and various spirits.
Biofuels: Converting sugars from agricultural waste into bioethanol as a clean energy source.
Genetic engineering: As a eukaryotic cell model, it is used to study protein synthesis, drug screening and human disease mechanisms.
Wastewater treatment: Specific yeast strains can degrade organic matter or adsorb heavy metals in industrial wastewater.

endocrine

definition

Endocrine refers to secretion through endocrine glandshormoneIt enters the blood and is transmitted to target organs or cells throughout the body to regulate physiological functions and maintain homeostasis.

Major endocrine glands and secreted hormones

Hypothalamus:Secretes releasing hormone and inhibin, regulates the pituitary gland
pituitary gland:It is divided into anterior lobe and posterior lobe. The anterior lobe secretes growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), etc.
thyroid:Secrete thyroxine (T3, T4) and regulate metabolism
Parathyroid:Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) to regulate calcium and phosphorus balance
Adrenal glands:The cortex secretes cortisol and aldosterone; the medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
Pancreas:The endocrine site (pancreatic islets) secretes insulin and glucagon
gonad:The testicles secrete testosterone and the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone
Pineal gland:Secretes melatonin and participates in circadian rhythm

endocrine function

Regulate metabolism (such as thyroxine, insulin)
Control growth and development (such as growth hormone)
Regulate water and electrolyte balance (such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone)
Regulate mood and stress responses (e.g. cortisol)
Maintain reproductive and sexual functions (such as estrogen, testosterone)

Relationships with other systems

Nervous system:Regulates each other with the endocrine system to form the neuroendocrine system
Immune system:Some hormones can affect the immune response, such as cortisol, which has anti-inflammatory effects

common diseases

Diabetes (abnormal insulin secretion)
Hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism
Cushing's syndrome (excess cortisol)
Growth hormone deficiency or excess (dwarfism, gigantism)

Summarize

The endocrine system transmits messages through hormones and plays an important role in command and regulation in the body. It works in conjunction with the nervous system to maintain overall body stability and health.

hormone

definition

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands or specific cells. They are transported to various parts of the body through the blood to regulate physiological processes and maintain stability in the body (such as metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, etc.).

Classification

Steroid hormones:Synthesized from cholesterol, such as testosterone, estrogen, cortisol
Peptide and protein hormones:Composed of amino acids, such as insulin, growth hormone, oxytocin,Endorphins (endorphins)
Amine hormones:Derived from single amino acids, such as thyroid hormone, epinephrine, norepinephrine,dopamine

Main functions

Regulate metabolism and energy balance
Control growth and development
Regulate reproductive function and sexual characteristics expression
Maintain water-salt balance and blood pressure
Regulating emotions and stress responses

secretion regulation

Hormone secretion is regulated by the nervous system and other hormones, and balance is maintained through a negative feedback mechanism.

example

Insulin: regulates blood sugar
Thyroxine: regulates metabolism
Cortisol: the stress hormone
Estrogen and testosterone: regulation of the reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics
Dopamine: neurotransmitter and amine hormone that affects mood, motivation and adrenal function
Endorphins: peptide hormones and neuromodulatory substances that provide pain relief and a sense of pleasure

Endocrinology and Hormones

Endocrine

Endocrine is aphysiological control system, refers to the process in which signal molecules secreted by specific cells or glands (called endocrine glands) directly enter the blood and are transmitted to other organs or tissues to regulate functions.

Hormones

Hormones areChemical signaling molecules secreted by the endocrine system. It is the "mediator of endocrine effects" and is responsible for transmitting instructions from the secretion site to the target cells.

relation

Endocrine is the "system" and "mechanism"
Hormones are "substances", a product released by the endocrine system
Without hormones, endocrine functions cannot be performed

Example

Thyroid (endocrine gland)Secretion →Thyroxine (hormone)→ Regulate metabolism
Pancreatic islets (endocrine tissue)Secretion →Insulin (hormone)→ Regulate blood sugar

in conclusion

endocrine ≠ hormone, but hormones are central to endocrine function. Simply put:

endocrineIt is "behavior" or "function",
hormoneIt is a "tool" or a "messenger".

Do endocrine hormones have to be present?

Yes, the essence of endocrine function is signaling through hormones.In the definition of the word endocrine, "Secrete hormones into the blood", acting on distal target cells" is a necessary condition. Therefore, without hormones, there is no endocrine effect in the true sense.

Define focus

Endocrine: A signaling mechanism that refers to the secretion of cells or glandshormoneinto the blood and acts on distant receptor cells.
Hormones: A signaling molecule that is soluble in blood and serves as a mediator of endocrine effects.

Endocrine vs. similar concepts

method of communication	signaling molecule	Transmission distance	example
endocrine	hormone	Long distance (blood circulation)	Insulin, thyroxine
Paracrine	Cytokines, local signaling molecules	neighboring cells	Inflammatory factors during tissue repair
Autocrine	self secretion, self action	return to yourself	immune cell activation
Neuroendocrine	Neurohormones	Distant (like endocrinology)	Oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone

Common misunderstandings clarified

If cells only release locally acting molecules without spreading through the blood, it isParacrineorautocrine, not endocrine.
ifneurotransmittersActs directly on synapses and belongs tonerve signal transmission, nor endocrine.

Summarize

Endocrine effects must be achieved through hormones, hormones are its core condition. Even if "secretory activity" without hormones has physiological regulatory functions, it is not defined as endocrine.

dopamine

definition

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is widely present in the brains of humans and animals and plays an important role in emotions, motivation, learning, motor control and other functions.

Physiological function

Rewards and pleasure:Closely related to the brain's reward system, when something pleasant is accomplished, a large amount of dopamine is released, producing a feeling of satisfaction.
Motivation and Learning:Promote goal-directed behavior and reinforce positive feedback in the learning process.
Motion control:The substantia nigra region of the midbrain secretes dopamine, which helps coordinate muscle activity and motor functions.
Attention and Concentration:Involved in the regulation of mindfulness and psychological resilience.

Related diseases

Parkinson's disease:Degeneration of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra leads to motor dysfunction.
Schizophrenia:Overactivation of the dopamine system may be associated with hallucinations and delusions.
Depression and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):Related to dopamine deficiency or dysfunction.

daily impact

Diet, exercise, good relationships, and a sense of accomplishment can promote dopamine secretion; while long-term stress, addictive behaviors, and overstimulation may interfere with the normal operation of the dopamine system.

Interesting facts

Chocolate, music, exercise and even anticipated happy events may trigger the release of dopamine and enhance mood and happiness.

steroids

definition

Steroids are a type of lipid compound with a specific four-ring carbon skeleton (called cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene) and are widely found in animals, plants and fungi. Steroids serve as the basis for important physiological substances such as hormones, vitamins, and cholesterol.

Structural features

The basic structure of steroids consists of three six-carbon rings and one five-carbon ring, called a four-ring skeleton (A, B, C, D rings). On this basis, different steroids can have different functions due to differences in substituents, double bonds, redox states, etc.

Main types

cholesterol:An important component of animal cell membranes and a precursor for the synthesis of other steroids.
Steroid hormones:
- Glucocorticoids (such as cortisone): involved in anti-inflammatory and metabolic regulation.
- Mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone): regulate sodium, potassium and water balance in the body.
- Sex hormones (such as testosterone, estrogen, progesterone): affect sexual development and reproductive function.
Vitamin D:Although it is a vitamin, it is structurally a steroid derivative and is involved in calcium and phosphorus metabolism and bone health.
Bile acids:Converted from cholesterol to help digest and absorb fat.

source

Synthesis in vivo:In animals, the liver or adrenal cortex uses cholesterol as raw material to synthesize various steroid hormones, which is the main source.
Dietary intake:Some steroids, such as cholesterol, can be ingested from meat, egg yolks, dairy products, etc., but most steroid hormones must still be synthesized by the body.
Plant source:Plants contain phytosterols, such as β-sitosterol, which have a structure similar to cholesterol and can be used as raw materials for the synthesis of steroid drugs.
Fungal source:Certain fungi can produce steroid precursors, such as pharmaceutical yeasts and koji molds, which are widely used in the industrial production of steroid drugs.
Artificial synthesis:Most pharmaceutical steroids (eg, corticosteroids, synthetic testosterone) are produced in large quantities via chemical synthesis or microbial transformation techniques.

Physiological function

Regulate endocrine functions such as metabolism, blood sugar, water and salt balance.
Regulate immune response and inflammatory process.
Promote the development of secondary sexual characteristics and reproductive function.
Maintain cell membrane stability and signaling.

medical purposes

Steroids are commonly used for:

Treats allergies and autoimmune diseases (such as lupus, asthma, arthritis).
As an immunosuppressant, it is used to prevent rejection after organ transplantation.
Replacement treatment of endocrine disorders such as adrenocortical insufficiency.

abuse issues

Some people abuse anabolic steroids (such as anabolic steroids) to enhance muscle mass and performance, which can lead to:

liver damage
cardiovascular disease
sexual dysfunction
Mood swings and increased aggression

in conclusion

Steroids are a large class of physiological compounds with diverse functions, and their sources include synthesis in the body, food intake, plant and microbial production, etc. They are vital to life activities and are widely used in medical treatments, but health risks arising from their abuse must also be guarded against.

endorphins

definition

Endorphin is a neuropeptide naturally produced by the human body. It is an endogenous opioid substance and is mainly released in the brain and spinal cord. It has the functions of analgesic, mood enhancement and stress regulation.

Mechanism of action

Endorphins bind to opioid receptors in the brain, reducing the transmission of pain signals and producing feelings of happiness, calmness, or excitement. Its mode of action is similar to morphine and morphine-inspired drugs, but it is naturally synthesized by the human body and has no addictive properties.

release situation

Vigorous exercise:For example, the "runner's pleasure" and peak feeling during long-distance running and fitness come from the release of large amounts of endorphins.
Laughter and happiness:Sincere smiles and humorous interactions can stimulate endorphin secretion.
Pain or pressure:When the body responds to trauma, pain, or stress, it activates the endorphin system to relieve pain.
Close contact:Social interactions such as hugging, kissing, and sex can increase endorphin and oxytocin levels.

Physiological function

Reduce pain sensation
Improve pleasure and happiness
Reduce anxiety and stress
Promote immune system function

Related applications

It promotes endorphin secretion through exercise therapy, meditation, music, dance, artistic creation, etc., and has been widely used in the auxiliary treatment of mental health and chronic pain.

Interesting facts

The name endorphins comes from "endogenous morphine", which means the body's own natural analgesic. It is one of the happy chemicals given to humans by nature.

Immunity

definition

Immunity refers to the body's ability to resist foreign pathogens (such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi) and eliminate abnormal cells in the body. It consists of innate immunity and acquired immunity, which can protect the body and maintain health.

immune system components

innate immunity: The first line of defense, including skin, mucous membranes, phagocytes, natural killer cells, etc., responds quickly but is not specific.
acquired immunity: It has specificity and memory, is dominated by B cells (antibody production) and T cells (cellular immunity), and can respond to specific pathogens.

Factors affecting immunity

Nutritional status: protein, vitamins (A, C, D, E), zinc, selenium and other minerals.
Sleep quality: Adequate sleep helps repair and regenerate immune cells.
Exercise habits: Moderate exercise can enhance immune function, while excessive exercise may suppress immunity.
Stress and mood: Chronic stress and depression can lower immunity.
Age: As we age, immune system function gradually declines.
Diseases and drugs: Diabetes, cancer, and immunosuppressants can weaken the immune response.

Ways to boost immunity

Eat a balanced diet and eat more foods rich in vitamins and antioxidants.
Maintain regular exercise, such as brisk walking, swimming, yoga, etc.
Maintain a good sleep schedule and get 7–8 hours of sleep each night.
Reduce stress and regulate your emotions through meditation, deep breathing or hobbies.
Avoid smoking and excessive drinking.
Get vaccinated regularly to enhance specific immunity.

Symptoms of insufficient immunity

Frequent recurring colds or infections.
Wounds heal slowly.
Easily tired and lack of energy.
Skin allergies and gastrointestinal disorders.

Immunoglobulin

definition

Immunoglobulin (Ig for short) is an antibody secreted by B cells. It belongs to a special type of protein that canSpecific recognition and neutralization of foreign antigens(such as pathogens and toxins), which are core molecules of humoral immunity.

basic structure

by twoheavy chainwith twolight chainForm a Y-shaped structure
The top of the YVariable regionSpecialized in identifying antigens
The bottom of the YConstant regionDetermine the functional type of antibody

Main types

IgG：The most important antibody in the blood, with long-term immune memory function, can pass through the placenta
IgA：Found in mucous membranes such as saliva, milk, and intestines, protecting mucous membranes from infection
IgM：Antibodies that are produced first and respond quickly to the initial infection
IgE：Related to allergic reactions and parasitic infections
IgD：Its function is not completely clear, but it mainly exists on the surface of B cells and participates in B cell activation.

Function

Identify and neutralize pathogens (viruses, bacteria, toxins)
Activate the complement system and enhance the immune attack effect
Promote the clearance of antigens by phagocytes
Works synergistically with other immune cells (such as mast cells, natural killer cells)

clinical application

Serological testing (such as checking IgM or IgG to determine the stage of infection)
Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) treats immunodeficiency diseases, autoimmune diseases, etc.
Tracking antibody responses after vaccination

Summarize

Immunoglobulin is an extremely critical molecule in the human body's defense system. It can provide specific and memory immune protection and is the core executor of antibody response and immune memory.

drug

definition

Drugs refer to chemical substances or biological agents used to prevent, diagnose, treat or alleviate diseases, or to regulate human physiological functions. Drugs can be of natural origin or synthetic and can only be used after rigorous clinical trials and regulatory approval.

Classification

Classified by source:
- Chemically synthesized drugs: such as aspirin, propanax
- Natural medicines: such as penicillin, digoxin
- Biological agents: such as vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, biosimilar drugs
Classified by use:
- Therapeutic drugs: directly treat disease
- Preventive medicines: such as vaccines
- Diagnostic drugs: such as contrast media
Classification according to usage:
- Oral medicine
- Injections
- Topical medications (such as ointments, patches)
- Inhalers and drops

Prescription and over-the-counter

Prescription drugs:It can only be obtained with a prescription from a doctor, such as antibiotics and blood pressure lowering drugs.
Over-the-Counter Drugs (OTC):You can buy it yourself, such as cold medicine and painkillers

R&D and Approval

Drugs must undergo complete preliminary experiments and clinical trials (Phases I to III), and then be reviewed and approved by competent authorities (such as the Ministry of Health and Welfare, FDA, and EMA in Taiwan) before they can be put on the market.

Note on usage

Should be taken according to the instructions of your doctor or pharmacist
Be aware of side effects and drug interactions
Do not stop taking the medicine at will or increase or decrease the dosage on your own

Pharmacology

Concept introduction

Pharmacology is the science that studies the interaction between drugs and living organisms. It explores how drugs affect physiological functions, disease treatment, and the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs in the body. Pharmacology aims to understand the mechanism of action, safety, efficacy and side effects of drugs, and to guide clinical medication.

Main chapter classification

1. General Pharmacology

Pharmacokinetics: Study of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) of drugs in the body.
Pharmacodynamics: Study of the interaction between drugs and receptors and their physiological effects.
Toxicology: The study of toxicity, dose dependence and safety range of drugs or chemical substances.

2. Systemic Pharmacology

According to the classification of physiological systems or organs, study the effects and therapeutic uses of corresponding drugs:

Cardiovascular Pharmacology
Neuropharmacology
Respiratory Pharmacology
Gastrointestinal Pharmacology
Renal & Urinary Pharmacology
Endocrine & Metabolic Pharmacology
Immunopharmacology & Anti-infective Agents

3. Clinical Pharmacology

Drug efficacy assessment and dose adjustment
Drug Interactions and Side Effect Management
Personalized medicine and pharmacogenomics

4. Special Pharmacology

Drug and Psychotropic Pharmacology
Anticancer Drugs and Chemotherapy Pharmacology
Botanical and Natural Products Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Concept introduction

Pharmacodynamics is a branch of pharmacology that studies the interaction between drugs and organisms and their physiological effects. It explores how drugs change cell functions or physiological processes by binding to receptors, enzymes or other molecular targets, thereby achieving therapeutic effects or producing side effects.

Basic principles

receptor binding: Drugs act through specific receptors (Receptor), triggering intracellular signaling and changing physiological functions.
dose-response relationship: Describes the relationship between drug dosage and physiological response. Maximum response (Emax) and half effective concentration (EC50) are commonly used to express the intensity of drug efficacy.
Efficacy: The ability of a drug to elicit a maximum physiological response.
Potency: The dose or concentration of a drug required to produce a specific response.
Selectivity and specificity: The preference of a drug for specific receptors or tissues affects its efficacy and side effects.

Type of action

Agonist: Binds to receptors and initiates physiological responses, such as adrenaline acting on beta receptors.
Partial Agonist: Can activate receptors but produce a less responsive response than a full agonist.
Antagonist: Blocks receptors without triggering a reaction and prevents the effects of other agonists.
Inverse Agonist: Binds to receptors to produce physiological effects opposite to those of agonists.

Measurement of drug effects

Dose-response curve: Depicts the physiological response at different concentrations.
Half effective concentration (EC50): The drug concentration required to achieve 50% of the maximum response.
Maximum effect (Emax): The maximum response that a drug can cause.

application

Design reasonable dosage to improve efficacy and reduce side effects.
Compare the potency and efficacy of different drugs.
Guide clinical drug selection and receptor-targeted treatment strategies.

neuropharmacology

Concept introduction

Neuropharmacology is a branch of pharmacology that studies the effects of drugs on the nervous system, including the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). It explores how drugs alter neuroconduction, neurotransmitter release, and receptor activity, thereby affecting behavior, mood, cognition, and physiological function.

Research scope

neurotransmitters and receptors: Such as dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, etc., and their receptor subtypes.
Drug mechanism of action: Drugs may enhance or inhibit neurotransmitter synthesis, release, reuptake, or receptor activity.
Neurological disease treatment: Including Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, depression, anxiety, epilepsy, schizophrenia and pain management.

Type of action

Excitatory Agents: Enhance nerve signal transmission, such as caffeine and amphetamine.
Inhibitory Agents: Weaken nerve signal transmission, such as benzodiazepines and barbiturates.
Modulatory Agents: Regulates the function of neurotransmitter systems, such as antidepressants (SSRIs) and antipsychotics.

Classification of common neuropharmacological drugs

CNS stimulants
CNS depressants
Anticonvulsants
Antidepressants
Antipsychotics
Analgesics & Anesthetics
Neurodegenerative disease agents for Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease

application

Treating neurological and psychiatric disorders
Studying the effects of drugs on behavior, cognition and mood
Developing new neuroprotective or neurorestorative drugs

anticancer drugs

Definition and function

Anticancer drugs are drugs used to treat malignant tumors. They achieve therapeutic effects by inhibiting cancer cell proliferation, inducing cell apoptosis, or blocking tumor angiogenesis.

Main types

Chemotherapy drugs: such as cisplatin and paclitaxel, which interfere with the cell division cycle
Targeted therapy drugs: specifically targeting specific molecules in cancer cells, such as imatinib (Glivec)
Immunotherapy drugs: such as PD-1 inhibitors, which strengthen the immune system to fight cancer cells
Hormone therapy drugs: for breast or prostate cancer, such as tamoxifen

side effect

Anticancer drugs may affect normal cells, causing the following side effects:

Nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite
Hair loss, anemia, leukopenia
Fatigue, decreased immunity

Usage Considerations

The condition and drug suitability must be evaluated by a specialist
Efficacy and side effects need to be monitored regularly
Some drugs are expensive and require other treatments

future development

The trend of precision medicine and personalized treatment promotes the development of new anti-cancer drugs, improves treatment efficiency and reduces side effects.

Opioids

Opioids refer to a class of chemicals that can bind to opioid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems, thereby producing analgesia, euphoria or sedation. This category of drugs covers natural ingredients extracted from poppy, semi-synthetic derivatives, and completely chemically synthesized drugs.

Sources and main classifications of drugs

Classification	Representative medicine	Feature description
Natural Opiates	Morphine, Codeine	Extracted directly from the opium poppy.
Semi-synthetic opioids	Heroin, Oxycodone	Based on natural ingredients, chemically processed to change their potency.
Fully synthetic opioids	Fentanyl, Methadone	Entirely synthesized in laboratories, some drugs, such as fentanyl, are extremely potent.

clinical medical use

This class of drugs is primarily viewed in the medical community as the last line of defense against severe pain:

Analgesic effect:For the control of acute severe pain, pain after major surgery, and palliative care of advanced cancer.
Induction of anesthesia:It is used as an auxiliary drug during surgery to help patients enter deep sedation.
Cough and diarrhea relief:Low doses of certain opioids, such as codeine, can be used to treat a stubborn cough or extremely severe diarrhea.

Side effects and health risks

The effects of opioids are dual, and their powerful effects come with extremely high physiological risks:

Respiratory depression:This is the most fatal side effect. High doses can inhibit the respiratory center in the brainstem, causing the patient to stop breathing.
Drug Tolerance:After long-term use, the receptor sensitivity to the drug decreases, and the dose needs to be continuously increased to maintain the same analgesic effect.
Physical dependence and addiction:Drugs activate the brain's reward circuit and release large amounts of dopamine, leading to strong psychological cravings and addictive behaviors.
Digestive system disorders:Long-term use almost certainly results in severe constipation (opioid-induced constipation).

Addiction Treatment and First Aid

Since this type of drug can easily lead to addiction, methadone or butylnorphine is often used in medicine for "replacement therapy" to relieve withdrawal symptoms and help patients return to normal life. If a suspected overdose occurs (such as coma, pupils as narrow as pinpoints, and weak breathing), the opioid receptor antagonist "Naloxone" should be used immediately. It can quickly block receptor binding and reverse the critical situation of respiratory depression.

Fentanyl

chemical properties

Fentanyl is a powerful synthetic opioid whose chemical structure belongs to the phenylpiperidine class. It is highly fat-soluble and can quickly penetrate the blood-brain barrier and act on the μ-opioid receptors in the central nervous system.

medical use

Fentanyl is often used to treat severe pain, especially in patients with advanced cancer or for pain management after major surgery. Common dosage forms include injections, patches, sublingual tablets and nasal sprays.

Functional characteristics

Its analgesic effect is about 50 to 100 times that of morphine. It has a rapid onset but a relatively short duration. It has significant analgesic, sedative and respiratory depression effects.

Abuse and risks

Because of its extremely high potency, fentanyl is often illegally added to drugs, resulting in users unknowingly ingesting fatal doses. Abuse of fentanyl can lead to respiratory depression, coma and even death.

Prevention and supervision

Most countries have classified fentanyl as a controlled drug and have stepped up crackdowns on illegal manufacturing and trafficking. Naloxone (Narcan) can be used in emergencies to reverse its fatal effects.

disease

cold

What is a cold?

Colds are upper respiratory tract infections caused by a variety of viruses, mainly affecting the nose, throat and trachea. It is a common mild disease that may occur throughout the year, but is particularly common in autumn and winter.

cold symptoms

Cold symptoms vary from person to person, but common ones include:

Runny or stuffy nose
sore throat
cough
mild fever
Headache
muscle soreness
feeling of tiredness

Causes of colds

Colds are mainly caused by viruses. Common viruses include:

Rhinovirus: The most common cold virus.
Coronavirus: Some species can cause cold symptoms.
Parainfluenza virus
Adenovirus

How colds are spread

Cold viruses are mainly spread through the following ways:

Droplet spread:Droplets expelled by coughing, sneezing or talking.
Contact transmission:Touch your nose or mouth after contact with contaminated objects.

How to treat a cold?

Colds are usually self-limiting and do not require specific treatment. Ways to relieve symptoms include:

Drink plenty of water to stay hydrated.
Get enough rest to allow your body to recover.
Use over-the-counter medications, such as fever reducers or cough suppressants.
Rinse your mouth with warm salt water to soothe your throat.

How to prevent colds?

The following measures can help prevent colds:

Wash your hands frequently and keep your hands clean.
Avoid close contact with people with colds.
Clean frequently touched surfaces regularly.
Maintain a healthy lifestyle and enhance your immunity.
Keep warm during the cold season.

influenza

definition

Influenza, referred to as influenza, is an acute respiratory infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. It is highly contagious and often prevalent in winter and spring.

symptom

Fever, chills
sore throat, cough
muscle and joint pain
tired, weak
Runny or stuffy nose
Sometimes accompanied by gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea (especially common in children)

Transmission route

Droplet spread:It is transmitted through droplets expelled when coughing, sneezing or talking.
Contact transmission:Infection occurs through contact with the eyes, nose, or mouth after contact with an object or surface contaminated with the virus.

high risk groups

Infants, toddlers and the elderly
People with weakened immune system
People with chronic diseases, such as diabetes, cardiopulmonary disease
pregnant woman

prevention methods

Get vaccinated:Getting the annual flu vaccine is the most effective way to prevent it.
Good hygiene habits:Wash your hands frequently and avoid touching your eyes, nose, and mouth.
Avoid close contact:Reduce contact with people with influenza, especially during epidemics.
Maintain a healthy lifestyle:Get enough sleep, a balanced diet, and moderate exercise to enhance your immunity.

treat

Antiviral drugs:For example, oseltamivir (Tamiflu) needs to be taken within 48 hours of the onset of symptoms for best results.
Symptomatic treatment:Use fever reducers, cough suppressants, etc. to relieve symptoms.
Get enough rest:Drink more water and replenish body fluids.

possible complications

pneumonia
bronchitis
Otitis media (more common in children)
Exacerbating chronic conditions, such as asthma or heart disease

Things to note

The flu differs from the common cold in that symptoms are more severe and recovery time is longer. If symptoms worsen or difficulty breathing occurs, seek medical attention immediately.

Reducing phlegm

definition

Phlegm reduction refers to the process of promoting the dilution, discharge or reduction of phlegm production through drugs or other methods, with the purpose of improving the smoothness and comfort of the respiratory tract.

causes of phlegm

Respiratory tract infections (such as colds, bronchitis)
Chronic respiratory diseases (such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)
allergic reaction
Smoking or air pollution

Common ways to resolve phlegm

Medications to reduce phlegm:Use expectorants, such as bromhexine (Bromhexine), acetylcysteine (NAC), etc., to dilute sputum and help it be discharged.
Traditional Chinese medicine to resolve phlegm:For example, Sichuan clamshell, Platycodon grandiflorum, Pinellia ternata, loquat leaves, etc. have the effect of resolving phlegm and moisturizing the lungs.
Drink more water:Increasing water in the body helps to thin the phlegm, making it easier to pass.
Vapor inhalation:Inhaling hot steam can soothe the respiratory tract and help loosen phlegm.
Patting on the back to expel phlegm:It is especially suitable for patients with excessive phlegm that is difficult to discharge. It uses physical vibration to help move phlegm out.

Things to note

Avoid overusing cough suppressants as they may inhibit phlegm production.
If the sputum is yellow, green, bloody, or accompanied by high fever, you should seek medical attention as soon as possible.
Quit smoking and avoid exposure to air pollution to reduce phlegm production.

Prevention advice

Keep indoor air moist and clean.
Adequate hydration and a balanced diet.
Enhance immunity and avoid repeated infections.

natural food for reducing phlegm

Fruits and vegetables

White radish:It has the effect of clearing away heat, reducing phlegm and smoothing Qi, and is suitable for stewing soup or porridge.
pear:Moistens the lungs and relieves cough, suitable for dry cough with less phlegm, and also helps to dilute phlegm.
Loquat:Contains a variety of plant compounds, which can moisten the lungs, relieve cough, and clear phlegm.
Oranges and citrus:Rich in vitamin C and natural phlegm-reducing ingredients, it helps with antioxidants, phlegm-reducing and expectoration.

Chinese medicinal materials

Chuanbei:It is often used to moisten the lungs, relieve cough and reduce phlegm, and is often steamed with pears.
Platycodon:It has the functions of relieving the lungs, eliminating phlegm and relieving cough.
Pinellia ternata:It can dry dampness and resolve phlegm, and is mostly used for people with phlegm-damp constitution.
Chenpi:It regulates qi and resolves phlegm, strengthens the spleen and aids digestion. It can be made into tea and drank.

Other natural ingredients

Honey:To soothe throat and relieve cough, drink with lemon or pear.
ginger:Warm food can dispel cold and reduce phlegm, which is suitable for cold cough.
Onions and garlic:It has antibacterial and phlegm-reducing effects, helping to improve phlegm caused by colds.

Food recommendations

Eat more foods that are warm, moisturizing and non-drying.
Avoid too much fried, spicy and dairy products, which may make phlegm thicker and thicker.
Paired with adequate drinking water and a light diet, it can help reduce phlegm and eliminate phlegm.

chicken pox

Chickenpox is an acute infectious disease caused by varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection. This virus is highly contagious and will cause chickenpox after initial infection. After recovery, the virus will lie dormant in the ganglia of the body for a long time. When immunity is compromised, it may be activated and cause herpes zoster.

Transmission route

Airborne and droplet transmission: spread by patients coughing, sneezing or respiratory secretions suspended in the air.
Contact transmission: direct contact with patient's blister fluid or virus-contaminated objects.
Vertical infection: Pregnant women are infected before and after delivery and may be passed to their newborns, causing congenital chickenpox.

clinical signs

The incubation period is generally 10 to 21 days, and clinical manifestations are usually divided into the following stages:

Prodromal period:Fever, headache, fatigue, loss of appetite and muscle pain.
Rash period:A rash appears on the skin, often spreading from the central trunk to the face and limbs.
Morphological evolution:It develops from erythema to papules, blisters, and finally scabs and falls off. Typically, various stages of rash appear simultaneously on the patient's skin.

Complications and high-risk groups

object	potential complications
Infants and Children	Secondary bacterial infections (such as cellulitis), encephalitis
Adults and Pregnant Women	Risk of viral pneumonia, acute myocarditis, fetal malformations
immunosuppressed patients	Hemorrhagic chickenpox, multiple organ failure, sepsis

Prevention and control measures

Vaccination:Chickenpox vaccination is the most effective way to prevent infection and is generally recommended for children over one year old.
Home isolation:Those diagnosed should stop going to work and school, and avoid going out to public places until the rash all over their body has completely dried up and scabbed.
Symptomatic treatment:The doctor will prescribe antipyretics (aspirin is prohibited to avoid triggering Reye's syndrome) and antihistamines to relieve the itching depending on the situation.
Antiviral drugs:For adults or adolescents who are at higher risk of severe disease, antiviral drugs can be given within 24 hours of onset to shorten the course of the disease.

Shingles

Shingles, commonly known as "skin snake", is a disease caused by the reactivation of the varicella zoster virus (VZV). Chickenpox is caused when the human body is first infected with the virus. The virus does not disappear after recovery, but remains latent in the dorsal root ganglia of the human spinal cord. When the immunity is weakened, the latent virus will spread to the skin surface along the nerve fibers, causing a band-like distribution of red rash and blisters.

Causes and pathogenesis

Viral reactivation is often associated with weakened immune system function. Triggering factors include advanced age, overwork, mental stress, major illness, or long-term use of immunosuppressants. Activation of the virus causes nerve inflammation, leading to severe neuralgia and subsequent rash in the area innervated by the affected ganglion.

clinical signs

Prodromal pain:A burning, stinging, or throbbing sensation may occur in the affected area 2 to 3 days before the rash appears.
Unilateral distribution:The rash usually follows ganglia on one side of the body, most commonly on the chest, back, waist, or face, and does not cross the midline of the body.
Blister evolution:It begins as erythema and papules, then develops into clusters of blisters that dry up and scab after about 7 to 10 days.

Risk groups and complications

object	Main risks and complications
Middle-aged and elderly people over 50 years old	In postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), the pain may last for months or even years.
Immunocompromised persons	Spread of virus to systemic organs, secondary bacterial infection, sepsis.
Infringement of eyes or ears	Damage to the optic nerve, corneal ulcers (which may lead to blindness), hearing loss, or facial paralysis.

Prevention and treatment

Antiviral drugs:The golden treatment period is within 72 hours after the rash occurs. Early use of antiviral drugs (such as Acyclovir, Valacyclovir) can effectively shorten the course of the disease and reduce pain.
Vaccination:There are currently inactive genetic recombinant vaccines on the market (such as Shingrix), which are recommended for adults over 50 years old or immunocompromised people over 18 years old. They have good preventive effects and can reduce the chance of neuralgia.
Wound care:Keep the affected area clean and dry, and do not open blisters yourself to prevent secondary bacterial infection.
Pain relief treatment:For acute stage or post-herpetic neuralgia, doctors will prescribe neuromodulators, analgesic ointments or oral analgesics as appropriate.

smallpox

Smallpox is a serious infectious disease caused by Variola virus. It is one of the diseases with the highest fatality rate in human history. However, in 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared it to be officially eradicated globally, making it the only human infectious disease that has been artificially eliminated by humans.

Transmission route

Droplet transmission: When a patient coughs or sneezes, the virus enters the air along with respiratory secretions.
Direct contact: Contact with skin lesions, pustular fluid, or crusted tissue of a patient.
Indirect contact: contact with virus-contaminated clothing, sheets or other objects.

clinical manifestations

The incubation period for smallpox is approximately 7 to 19 days, and the onset of smallpox is extremely painful and characteristic:

Prodromal period:Sudden high fever, severe headache, back pain and vomiting.
Rash period:The rash first appears on the oral mucosa, then spreads to the face, hands and limbs, and finally to the trunk. Its distribution is "centrifugal", that is, there are more extremities of the limbs than the trunk.
Evolution process:The lesions will simultaneously transform from macules to papules, blisters, and finally into hard, bead-shaped pustules. The scabs will leave permanent scars (pockmarks).

Virus classification and fatality rate

Virus type	feature	estimated fatality rate
Variola major	The most common and severe type, with severe symptoms.	about 30%
Variola minor	The disease is milder, with similar symptoms but a lower risk of death.	about 1%

History and prevention

Vaccination technology:It originated from ancient China and India. At the end of the 18th century, British doctor Edward Jenner discovered that vaccination with "cowpox" could prevent smallpox, laying the foundation for modern immunology.
Global eradication:In 1967, the WHO launched a large-scale global vaccination program, and the last case of natural infection was detected in Somalia in 1977.
Current situation:Currently, the smallpox virus is only stored in specific high-biosafety laboratories in the United States and Russia for research and bioterrorism attack prevention.

Insomnia

what is insomnia

Insomnia is a common sleep disorder that refers to difficulty falling asleep, maintaining sleep, or waking up feeling exhausted. Insomnia may be transient (acute insomnia) or persistent (chronic insomnia), and the severity varies from person to person.

Common causes of insomnia

Stress and Anxiety:Life events such as work stress, family problems, or financial distress can cause insomnia.
Bad sleeping habits:Irregular sleep schedules, excessive use of electronic devices, or drinking caffeinated drinks before bed.
Physical health issues:Such as chronic pain, apnea, or gastroesophageal reflux.
Mental health issues:Depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Drugs and stimulants:Side effects of certain drugs or the effects of nicotine and alcohol.

Symptoms of insomnia

Symptoms of insomnia include:

Difficulty falling asleep, often taking more than 30 minutes to fall asleep.
Waking up frequently during the night or having difficulty falling back asleep after waking up.
Waking up early and being unable to fall asleep again.
Feeling tired during the day, with reduced concentration and mood swings.

Effects of insomnia

Long-term insomnia can lead to physical and mental health problems, including reduced immunity, increased risk of cardiovascular disease, impaired memory and concentration, and even triggers of depression and anxiety.

Insomnia treatments

Treatments for insomnia include:

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT-I):Helps change negative sleep patterns and thinking patterns.
Sleep Hygiene Improvement:Establish a regular sleep schedule, avoid using electronic devices before bed, and keep your bedroom quiet and comfortable.
Medication:Short-term use of sleeping pills or other sleep aids must be done under the guidance of a doctor.
Relaxation techniques:Such as deep breathing, meditation or yoga to help reduce stress and anxiety.

How to prevent insomnia

Ways to prevent insomnia include maintaining a regular sleep routine, reducing stress, avoiding caffeine and alcohol, and creating a relaxing environment before bed.

periodontal disease

definition

Periodontal disease is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the gums and supporting tooth structures. It is primarily caused by bacterial infection and may cause teeth to loosen or fall out.

type

Gingivitis:In the early stages of periodontal disease, only the gums are affected, with red, swollen and bleeding gums.
Periodontitis:In further stages of development, the inflammation spreads beneath the gums, destroying the alveolar bone and supporting structures.

Cause

Plaque buildup.
Poor oral hygiene habits.
Smoking or using tobacco products.
Diabetes and other systemic diseases.
Immunocompromised.
genetic factors.

symptom

Red, swollen, sore, or bleeding gums.
Persistent bad breath.
Gums recede and teeth appear longer.
Loose teeth or changes in your bite.
Pus oozes from the gums.

prevention

Brush your teeth twice a day and use fluoride toothpaste.
Use dental floss or an interdental brush to clean between teeth every day.
Clean your teeth regularly to remove tartar and plaque.
Avoid smoking or using tobacco products.
Maintain a balanced diet and avoid excessive sugar intake.
Get regular dental checkups to catch problems early.

treat

Non-surgical treatment:Includes scaling and deep cleaning (scaling and root planing).
Surgical treatment:Such as periodontal surgery, gum restoration and bone grafting to restore damaged supporting structures.
Medication:Antibiotics or antibacterial mouthwash can help control infection.

Periodontal disease treatment

basic treatment

The initial treatment for periodontal disease is usually non-surgical, including scaling and root planing. By removing plaque and calculus, it can reduce bacterial growth and reduce gum inflammation.

drug treatment

In some cases, doctors will use local or systemic antibiotics to assist treatment to help suppress the number of pathogenic bacteria and improve the effectiveness of treatment.

surgical treatment

If periodontal disease has progressed to a severe stage, surgery such as periodontal flap surgery, bone grafting, or gum grafting may be required to repair damaged periodontal tissue and restore tooth support.

Maintenance treatment

After treatment, regular return visits are required for periodontal maintenance, and professional cleaning and monitoring are required to reduce the risk of recurrence. Patients also need to develop good oral hygiene habits, including proper brushing and flossing.

Adjustment of lifestyle habits

Quitting smoking, eating a balanced diet and reducing sugar intake are of great help in improving immunity and improving periodontal condition.

Main pathogenic bacteria

Periodontal disease is a multi-species infection, with several bacteria considered to be the main causative agents:

Porphyromonas gingivalis（Porphyromonas gingivalis）
Actinobacterium tanneri（Tannerella forsythia）
Actinomycetemcomitans（Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans）
Prevotella intermedius（Prevotella intermedia）
Treponema denticola（Treponema denticola）

suppressive drugs

Commonly used drugs in clinical practice include:

antibiotic: Such as Metronidazole, Amoxicillin, and Tetracycline, which can effectively inhibit specific pathogenic bacteria.
antibacterial mouthwash: Mouthwash containing chlorhexidine can reduce plaque and inflammation.

Inhibitable Foods and Natural Ingredients

Certain foods or natural ingredients have antibacterial effects and can support periodontal health:

Green tea polyphenols (catechins): Can inhibit the growth of bacteria such as Porphyromonas gingivalis.
cranberry: The polyphenols in it can reduce the adhesion of bacteria to the surface of teeth and gums.
Allicin: It has broad-spectrum antibacterial effect and can interfere with the metabolism of pathogenic bacteria.
probiotic foods(Such as yogurt, fermented milk): It can balance the oral flora and reduce the growth of harmful bacteria.
Vitamin C rich foods(Such as citrus, fruits, vegetables): Promote gum tissue repair and immunity.

Catechins and periodontal disease

Main ingredients

Polyphenols in green teaCatechinsMainly, the most active ones include epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), epicatechin (EC), and epigallocatechin (EGC).

Antibacterial mechanism

Inhibit bacterial growth: EGCG can interfere with the energy metabolism of Porphyromonas gingivalis and reduce its proliferation ability.
Destroy bacterial biofilms: Catechin can reduce the formation of biofilm by bacteria on the surface of gums and tooth roots, making it difficult for pathogenic bacteria to adhere.
Inhibit toxin production: P. gingivalis secretes proteases (gingipains) to destroy periodontal tissue, and catechins can reduce the activity of these enzymes.
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory: Catechin can neutralize free radicals, inhibit the secretion of inflammatory factors (such as IL-1β, TNF-α), and reduce gum inflammation.

research evidence

Several studies have shown that green tea extract containing high concentrations of EGCG significantly reduces plaque buildup and lowers the numbers of Porphyromonas gingivalis and other periodontal disease-causing bacteria.

Application method

drinking green tea: Daily drinking can provide continuous catechin intake and help maintain the balance of oral flora.
Green tea extract mouthwash: Clinical experiments show that it can effectively reduce dental plaque index and gum bleeding.
Oral supplementation as tablets or capsules: Provides higher concentration of catechins to enhance antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects.

Things to note

Although green tea and catechins have significant antibacterial effects, they should be used as auxiliary methods in the treatment of periodontal disease, and they still need to be combined with professional dental treatment and good oral hygiene habits.

Allicin and periodontal disease

chemical origin

Allicin (Allicin) is a sulfur-containing organic compound. When the alliin (Alliin) in garlic is chopped or crushed, it is exposed to enzymes.AlliinaseGenerated after action. It is the main source of garlic's unique odor and biological activity.

Antibacterial mechanism

Broad spectrum antibacterial: Allicin has inhibitory effects on both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, including P. gingivalis, A. actinomycetemcomitans, P. intermedia, etc. related to periodontal disease.
Interfering with bacterial metabolism: Allicin can react with sulfhydryl groups (–SH) in bacterial proteins, inhibiting the activity of important enzymes, thereby blocking energy metabolism.
damage cell membrane: Allicin can increase the permeability of bacterial cell membranes, causing intracellular substances to leak out and causing bacteria to lose their ability to grow.
Inhibit biofilm formation: Allicin can weaken the ability of periodontal pathogenic bacteria to form stable biofilms, making them easier to remove.

Anti-inflammation and immune modulation

In addition to its antibacterial effect, allicin can also reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory factors (such as TNF-α, IL-1β), reduce the inflammatory response of the gums, and enhance the host immune system's ability to clear bacteria.

research evidence

In vitro studies have shown that allicin can significantly inhibit the proliferation and release of virulence factors of P. gingivalis. Animal experiments and preliminary clinical observations also show that garlic extract can reduce inflammatory indicators related to periodontitis.

Application method

dietary intake: Raw garlic or lightly processed garlic contains more allicin, but heating will break it down and reduce its effectiveness.
nutritional supplements: Allicin capsules or extracts are available on the market, which can provide a stable dose.
Topical application(Experimental phase): There are studies exploring adding garlic extract to periodontal treatment gel or mouthwash as an auxiliary therapy.

Things to note

Too high a concentration of allicin may irritate the oral mucosa, and taking large amounts of garlic orally may affect the gastrointestinal tract and even interact with anticoagulant drugs. Therefore, it should be used in moderation and professional treatment should be given priority.

Cranberry polyphenols and periodontal disease

Main active ingredients

Cranberries are rich inpolyphenols, especiallyProanthocyanidins (condensed anthocyanins), its structure has a unique A-type bond, which is different from the common B-type proanthocyanidins in other fruits, so it has stronger antibacterial adhesion ability.

inhibitory mechanism

Interfering with bacterial attachment: Cranberry polyphenols can prevent periodontal disease-causing bacteria (such as Porphyromonas gingivalis, Prevotella, Actinobacter) from adhering to the surface of teeth and gums, and reduce the formation of biofilm.
Destroy biofilm structure: The formed bacterial biofilm will become loose under the action of cranberry polyphenols, and the aggregation force between bacteria will decrease.
Inhibit bacterial enzymes: Some studies have pointed out that cranberry extract can inhibit the proteases and adhesion-related enzymes secreted by pathogenic bacteria, reducing their pathogenicity.
Anti-inflammatory effect: Cranberry polyphenols can reduce the release of inflammatory mediators (such as IL-6, TNF-α) and reduce gum tissue damage.

research evidence

Multiple oral studies have found that cranberry extract significantly reduces plaque formation and inhibits the activity of bacteria associated with periodontal disease. Animal experiments and cell experiments also show that it has a protective effect on periodontal inflammation.

Application method

Drink cranberry juice: Can reduce the adhesion of bacteria in the mouth, but high-sugar versions should be avoided to avoid the risk of dental caries.
Cranberry extract health supplements: Provides higher concentration of proanthocyanidins in capsule or tablet form.
Oral care products: Some experimental toothpastes and mouthwashes add cranberry extract to assist periodontal health.

Things to note

Although cranberries have significant antibacterial adhesion effects, they are auxiliary measures and cannot replace professional treatment of periodontal disease and daily oral cleaning.

Probiotic foods and periodontal disease

Basic concepts

Probiotics refer to active microorganisms that can have a positive effect on the health of the host when ingested. Common strains includeLactobacillusandBifidobacterium. In the oral cavity, probiotics can compete with pathogenic bacteria to achieve a balance of flora and reduce the growth of periodontal disease-related bacteria.

Mechanism of action

competitive inhibition: Probiotics can compete with periodontal disease-causing bacteria (such as P. gingivalis, A. actinomycetemcomitans) for attachment locations and nutritional resources, reducing the number of harmful bacteria.
produce antibacterial substances: Some lactic acid bacteria can secrete lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide or bacteriocins to directly inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria.
Immunomodulation: Probiotics can reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (such as TNF-α, IL-6), promote the secretion of anti-inflammatory factors (such as IL-10), and reduce gingival inflammation.
Destroy biofilm: The metabolites of probiotics can interfere with the formation of stable biofilms by periodontal disease-causing bacteria, making them easier to remove.

research evidence

Clinical studies have shown that oral administration of probiotic-containing lozenges or dairy products can reduce plaque index and gum bleeding, and reduce the proportion of pathogenic bacteria in periodontal pockets. Some randomized controlled trials have shown that probiotic-assisted periodontal treatment can improve the therapeutic effect of scaling or scaling.

Application method

dairy: Such as yogurt and fermented milk, lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria are often added.
Probiotic oral tablets or capsules: Provides specific oral probiotic strains such as L. reuteri.
Oral care products(Experimental phase): Some mouthwashes and toothpastes add probiotics as a formula to assist periodontal health.

Things to note

Probiotic foods should be used as a complementary measure and cannot replace professional periodontal treatment. The effect also varies depending on the strain type and individual flora status. It is recommended to combine it with regular oral cleaning and dental treatment.

Vitamin C and periodontal disease

Basic functions of vitamin C

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin and a powerful antioxidant that plays an important role in collagen synthesis, antioxidant defense and immune function. Essential for maintaining healthy gums and periodontal tissue.

Effect on periodontal tissue

Promote collagen synthesis: Vitamin C is an essential cofactor for collagen production, which can help repair gums and periodontal ligament tissue and improve tooth support.
Accelerate tissue repair: Periodontal disease can cause gum inflammation and tissue destruction. Vitamin C can speed up the healing process of damaged tissue.
Strengthen blood vessel health: Vitamin C can maintain the integrity of gum capillaries and reduce gum bleeding and leakage.

Immunomodulation and antioxidant

Improve immunity: Vitamin C can promote the function of white blood cells, improve the phagocytosis of neutrophils, and enhance resistance to periodontal disease-causing bacteria.
antioxidant protection: A large number of free radicals will be produced during periodontitis. Vitamin C can neutralize free radicals and reduce oxidative stress and further damage to periodontal tissue.
Reduce inflammatory response: Vitamin C helps reduce the production of pro-inflammatory mediators (such as IL-1β, TNF-α) and inhibit gum inflammation.

research evidence

Research shows that a lack of vitamin C can cause gum swelling and bleeding, and in severe cases may develop into scurvy. Clinical observations indicate that those who consume sufficient vitamin C have lower incidence and severity of periodontal disease.

Vitamin C-rich foods

citrus: Orange, lemon, grapefruit.
Berries: Strawberry, blueberry, blackberry.
tropical fruits: Kiwi, guava, mango, pineapple.
vegetable: Bell peppers, broccoli, kale, spinach, tomatoes.

Things to note

Vitamin C should be taken in through a balanced diet. Additional high-dose supplementation (>2000mg/day) may cause gastrointestinal discomfort or increase the risk of kidney stones. It is recommended to use natural foods as the main source as auxiliary nutritional support for periodontal health.

hypertension

what is high blood pressure

Hypertension is a chronic disease in which blood pressure is consistently higher than the normal range. Hypertension is diagnosed when systolic blood pressure (high pressure) exceeds 140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure (low pressure) exceeds 90 mmHg. High blood pressure may be asymptomatic for long periods of time, but if uncontrolled, it can have serious health consequences.

causes of high blood pressure

Essential hypertension:The most common type has complex causes related to genetics, eating habits, stress and other factors.
Secondary hypertension:Caused by other health problems, such as kidney disease, endocrine problems, or medication side effects.

risk factors for high blood pressure

The following factors may increase your risk of high blood pressure:

Growing older
family history
obese or overweight
High salt diet
lack of exercise
Smoking or drinking too much alcohol
chronic stress

Symptoms of high blood pressure

Hypertension usually has no obvious symptoms, so it is called the "silent killer". In severe cases, symptoms such as headache, dizziness, blurred vision, or chest pain may occur.

Effects of high blood pressure

If not effectively controlled, high blood pressure can cause:

Heart disease, such as myocardial infarction or heart failure
Stroke
kidney damage
vision problems
arteriosclerosis

How to manage high blood pressure

Ways to manage high blood pressure include:

Healthy eating:Choose a low-salt, low-fat, high-fiber diet, such as the DASH diet.
Regular exercise:Aim for at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise per week, such as brisk walking or cycling.
Control your weight:Maintain a healthy weight range.
Reduce stress:Use relaxation techniques such as deep breathing or meditation.
Quit smoking and limit alcohol consumption:Avoid smoking and limit alcohol intake.
Take your medicine on time:Take blood pressure lowering medications as directed by your doctor and monitor your blood pressure regularly.

How to prevent high blood pressure

Measures to prevent high blood pressure include maintaining a healthy lifestyle, checking blood pressure regularly, and early detection and management of risk factors.

hemangioma

Overview

Hemangioma is a benign tumor formed by abnormal proliferation of vascular endothelial cells. It is commonly found in the skin and subcutaneous tissue, and may also occur in the liver, brain or other internal organs. Most hemangiomas appear in infancy and early childhood and tend to regress on their own, but some types or locations may require medical intervention.

Classification

Infantile Hemangioma:
Most commonly, it appears a few weeks after birth, undergoes a period of rapid growth, and usually resolves naturally within a few years.
Congenital Hemangioma:
It is present at birth and can be divided into rapidly resolving type (RICH) and non-resolving type (NICH).
Capillary hemangioma:
It is composed of small capillaries and is commonly found on the surface of the skin, with a red or purple appearance.
Cavernous hemangioma:
It is composed of a larger blood vessel cavity, often located under the skin or in the internal organs, and is soft to the touch.
Mixed hemangioma:
It has characteristics of both capillaries and cavernous blood vessels.

Causes and pathological mechanisms

The exact cause of hemangioma is not fully understood, but it is generally believed to be related to the following factors:

Vascular endothelial cell proliferation and apoptosis imbalance
Excessive expression of angiogenic factors (such as VEGF, bFGF)
Abnormal vascular development during embryonic stage
Hypoxic environment stimulates angiogenesis

Common symptoms

Red, purple or blue bumps on the skin surface
Press to fade slightly
Swelling, ulceration, or bleeding may occur during periods of rapid growth
If located in the eyes, respiratory tract, liver or brain, it may affect function

Diagnosis

Clinical observation:Judge based on appearance, color and growth changes.
ultrasound:Assess blood flow and tumor depth.
MRI or CT:For deep-seated or visceral hemangiomas.
Pathological examination:A few atypical cases require biopsy confirmation.

Treatment principles

Most hemangiomas are benign and can regress on their own. Treatment depends on location, size and whether they affect function:

Observation and tracking:Asymptomatic people can be followed up regularly.
Medication:
- Beta blockers (such as Propranolol): currently the first-line treatment, can inhibit blood vessel proliferation.
- Steroids: Reduce inflammation and blood vessel proliferation (now less commonly used).
Laser treatment:Often used for superficial hemangioma or residual pigment.
Surgical removal:It is suitable for those who affect organ function, suffer from repeated bleeding or have obvious appearance.

possible complications

ulcers, infection, or bleeding
Affects vision, breathing or eating (depending on location)
A small number of large hemangioma can increase the burden on the heart

prognosis

The prognosis for most hemangiomas is good, and infantile hemangiomas usually regress significantly by the preschool years, leaving only mild pigmentation or skin laxity. Early evaluation and appropriate treatment can effectively reduce functional and cosmetic effects.

Research and new developments

Research on the mechanism of action of β-blockers: related to inhibition of VEGF and vasoconstriction.
Molecular marker studies: Used to distinguish hemangiomas from other vascular malformations.
Low-invasive treatment technology: Improves safety and reduces scarring.

fatty liver

definition

Fatty liver (Hepatic Steatosis) refers to excessive accumulation of fat in liver cells, usually referring to liver weight exceeding5%–10%Composed of fat. According to the cause and severity, it can be divided into alcoholic fatty liver and non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFLD).

Classification

alcoholic fatty liver disease: Caused by long-term excessive drinking.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): Related to obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.
Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH): Fat accumulation combined with inflammation may progress to cirrhosis or liver cancer.

Cause

Overeating (high-sugar, high-fat, high-calorie diet)
alcohol intake
Obesity and metabolic syndrome
insulin resistance
Drugs or toxins (such as tetracycline, methotrexate)

symptom

Most patients with fatty liverno obvious symptoms, some may appear:

Dull pain or discomfort in the right upper quadrant
tiredness, lethargy
Liver enlargement (when severe)

diagnostic methods

blood test: Liver function index (ALT, AST) increases.
Imaging examination: Ultrasound, CT, MRI.
liver slices: Determine fat accumulation and inflammation.

Treatment and Prevention

Weight loss and balanced diet (avoid high sugar, high oil, high alcohol)
Regular exercise (at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise per week)
Control blood sugar, blood pressure, and blood lipids
Avoid alcohol and hepatotoxic drugs

possible complications

Liver fibrosis and cirrhosis
Liver cancer (HCC)
Increased risk of cardiovascular disease

metabolic syndrome

Metabolic Syndrome is not a single disease, but a collective name for a group of health risk factors. It is a collection of abnormalities in blood pressure, blood lipids, blood sugar and abdominal fat, and is considered a precursor to cardiovascular disease and diabetes. When these factors occur together, the risk of chronic disease is significantly increased.

Judgment criteria

According to the definition of the Ministry of Health and Welfare, if three or more of the following five indicators are met (inclusive), it is determined to be metabolic syndrome:

Test items	Abnormality judgment criteria
abdominal obesity	Male waist circumference ≧ 90 cm (35 inches), female waist circumference ≧ 80 cm (31 inches).
High blood pressure	Systolic blood pressure ≧ 130mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≧ 85mmHg, or taking antihypertensive drugs.
High fasting blood sugar	Fasting blood glucose level ≧ 100mg/dL, or taking medication to treat diabetes.
High fasting triglycerides	Triglyceride ≧ 150mg/dL, or you are taking triglyceride-lowering drugs.
Low HDL cholesterol	Men ＜ 40mg/dL, women ＜ 50mg/dL.

health risks

If patients with metabolic syndrome do not improve their living habits immediately, the health threats they will face in the future include:

Type 2 diabetes:The risk is about 5 times higher than the general population.
Hypertension and cardiovascular disease:Including coronary heart disease, stroke and heart failure, the risk is about 2 times higher.
Kidney disease:Long-term abnormal blood sugar and blood pressure will damage renal glomerular function.
Fatty liver:Excess fat accumulates in the liver and may develop into cirrhosis.

Improvement and prevention suggestions

Metabolic syndrome is reversible, and early intervention can effectively return to a healthy state:

Healthy eating:Adopt dietary principles that are high in fiber, low in sugar, low in oil, and low in salt, such as the Mediterranean diet or the DASH diet.
Regular exercise:Aim for at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise per week, combined with muscle-strengthening training twice per week.
Weight management:Maintain a healthy weight (BMI between 18.5 and 24), especially by reducing abdominal fat accumulation.
Quitting smoking and limiting alcohol:Nicotine in tobacco can damage blood vessel walls, while alcohol can cause triglycerides to rise.
Regular screening:Adults over 40 years old should use regular health check-ups to track blood pressure, blood sugar and blood lipid values.

allergy

definition

Allergy is a phenomenon in which the body's immune system overreacts to otherwise harmless substances (called allergens), causing tissue damage or uncomfortable symptoms. Common allergens include pollen, dust mites, animal dander, food, drugs, etc.

Common symptoms

Sneezing, runny nose, nasal congestion (allergic rhinitis)
Itchy, watery, red eyes (allergic conjunctivitis)
Skin rash, urticaria, itching (atopic dermatitis)
Wheezing, coughing, difficulty breathing (allergic asthma)
Gastrointestinal upset, abdominal pain, diarrhea (food allergies)
In severe cases, it may cause anaphylaxis (Anaphylaxis)

Common allergens

Environmental: pollen, dust mites, mold, animal dander
Food: peanuts, milk, eggs, seafood, wheat, soybeans
Drug properties: penicillin, aspirin, some antibiotics
Insect bites: bee, wasp, ant venom

Immunological mechanism

The development of allergies mainly involves IgE antibodies and mast cells. When allergens enter the body, IgE binds to receptors on mast cells, causing the mast cells to release chemicals such as histamine and leukotrienes, causing blood vessel dilation, smooth muscle contraction and inflammatory reactions.

Diagnosis

Interview and medical history assessment
Skin Prick Test
Blood test (specific IgE test)
Food or drug elimination and challenge testing

Treatment and Prevention

Avoid exposure to known allergens
Medication: Antihistamines, nasal sprays (steroids), bronchodilators
Allergen Immunotherapy: Gradually adapting the body to the allergen
Lifestyle adjustments: Keep the environment clean, use anti-mite bedding, and avoid smoke and air pollution
Emergency treatment: Use an epinephrine auto-injector (EpiPen) immediately in case of severe allergic reaction

allergic rhinitis

Overview

Allergic rhinitis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the nose caused by an overreaction of the immune system to allergens in the environment. When people with allergies inhale allergens, the immune system produces specific IgE antibodies, causing mast cells to release histamine and other inflammatory mediators, causing nasal symptoms.

Main symptoms

Continuous sneezing
Itchy nose, stuffy nose
Runny nose (usually watery)
Postnasal drip (nasal fluid flowing down the throat)
Itchy, watery eyes (often combined with allergic conjunctivitis)

Common allergens

dust mites
pollen
animal dander
mold spores
Cockroach debris

Pathogenesis

Allergic rhinitis belongs to Type I Hypersensitivity. After first exposure to an allergen, B cells produce specific IgE antibodies that bind to the surface of mast cells. When exposed to the same allergen again, IgE cross-links with the allergen, prompting mast cells to release histamine, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins, causing dilation and swelling of blood vessels in the nasal mucosa.

diagnostic methods

History and clinical assessment:Based on onset time, seasonality, and environmental factors.
Allergen testing:Skin prick test or serum-specific IgE test (such as ImmunoCAP).
Rhinoscopy:Look for pale, swollen nasal mucosa or watery discharge.

Treatment

Avoid allergens:Clean bedding regularly, take anti-mite measures, and avoid contact with pets and smoke.
Medication:
- Antihistamines: Reduce nasal itching, runny nose and sneezing.
- Intranasal corticosteroids: inhibit inflammation of the nasal mucosa.
- Decongestants: Temporarily relieve nasal congestion.
- Leukotriene antagonists: Reduce inflammation.
- Allergen immunotherapy: Gradually reduce the intensity of the immune system's response to allergens.

Immunological mechanism

The core of allergic rhinitis lies in the IgE-mediated immune response. IgE binds to the FcεRI receptor on the surface of mast cells, prompting the mast cells to release inflammatory mediators when exposed to allergens. In the chronic stage, eosinophils and T helper cells (Th2) are involved, secreting IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 and other cytokines, leading to persistent inflammation.

Science and Emerging Treatment Directions

Anti-IgE monoclonal antibodies:Omalizumab, for example, can neutralize free IgE and reduce mast cell activation.
Probiotic treatment:Reduce Th2-type responses by regulating intestinal and immune balance.
Genetic research:To explore the association between IL-4, IL-13 and FcεRI gene polymorphisms and allergic susceptibility.
Environmental control technology:Reduce allergen exposure with air purification and smart humidity control.

atopic dermatitis

Overview

Atopic Dermatitis (AD) is a chronic, recurring inflammatory skin disease that often coexists with allergic rhinitis and asthma. It is one of the "atopic triad". This disease is characterized by intense itching, dryness, and damaged skin barrier, and is closely related to genetics, immune response, and environmental factors.

Main symptoms

Skin is dry, rough, and easily cracked
Severe itching, which often leads to skin damage and infection
Red rash, scaling, oozing, or crusting
Skin lichenification (thickening and obvious lines) may occur in the chronic stage.
Common parts: face, neck, elbow bends, back of knees, etc.

Cause and pathogenesis

The pathological mechanism of atopic dermatitis is complex, mainly involving skin barrier dysfunction and excessive activation of the immune system:

Skin barrier defects:Due to gene mutations in epidermal proteins (such as filaggrin), the skin cannot effectively moisturize, increasing the invasion of foreign allergens and bacteria.
Immune abnormalities:Th2-type immune response is dominant, and cytokines such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 are overproduced, promoting the production of IgE antibodies and causing inflammation.
Microbial imbalance:Common Staphylococcus aureus (Staphylococcus aureus) multiplies in large numbers, further exacerbating skin inflammation.

Predisposing and exacerbating factors

Dry climate or drastic temperature changes
stress, emotional stress
Irritation from detergents, fragrances or clothing fibers
Food allergies (such as eggs, milk, peanuts, shrimps and crabs, etc.)
Dust mites, pollen, pet dander and other environmental allergens

Treatment

Moisturizing and skin repair:Use a moisturizer containing ceramide, urea or glycerin to restore the skin barrier.
Anti-inflammatory treatment:
- Topical corticosteroids control acute inflammation.
- Immunomodulators (such as Tacrolimus, Pimecrolimus) reduce immune overreaction.
Anti-infectious treatment:If there is a bacterial infection, antibiotics can be used to treat it.
Antipruritic treatment:Oral antihistamines can reduce itching.
Phototherapy:Suppresses immune activity using narrow-band ultraviolet rays (UVB).
Biological agents:For example, anti-IL-4/IL-13 monoclonal antibody (Dupilumab) is a fundamental treatment for Th2-type immune response.

Diet and life management

Avoid food allergens and high histamine foods.
Use mild, fragrance-free cleaning products.
Maintain indoor humidity (about 50~60%).
Maintain a regular schedule and reduce stress.

Immunology and IgE correlation

Patients with atopic dermatitis are often accompanied by elevated IgE antibody concentrations and have specific reactions to a variety of allergens. After IgE binds to the surface of mast cells and basophilic spheres, it releases histamine and cytokines when exposed to allergens, causing local inflammation and itching. In addition, Th1 and Th17 cells are involved in the chronic stage, causing persistent skin damage.

New directions in technology and clinical practice

Microbiome Research:Reduced skin microbial diversity was found to correlate with disease severity.
Molecular target therapy:New antibody drugs target key inflammatory mediators such as IL-31 and TSLP.
Probiotics and prebiotic applications:Regulate intestinal immune response and reduce inflammatory tendencies.
Smart skin monitoring:Use wearable sensors and AI to analyze changes in skin moisture and inflammation.

asthma

what is asthma

Asthma (asthma) is a chronic respiratory disease characterized by inflammation and overreaction of the airways, leading to narrowing of the airways. Patients often experience difficulty breathing, coughing, chest tightness, or wheezing (wheezing), and these symptoms may come and go and be worsened by various triggers.

causes of asthma

allergic reaction:Allergens such as pollen, dust mites, and pet hair.
Environmental factors:Air pollution, smoke or chemicals.
Genetic factors:People who have a family history of asthma or allergies are more likely to develop asthma.
Infect:Certain viral infections can trigger or worsen asthma.
sports:Especially when exercising in cold, dry conditions.

Asthma symptoms

Symptoms of asthma vary from person to person, but common ones include:

Difficulty or shortness of breath
Chest tightness or discomfort
Cough, especially at night or early in the morning
Wheezing, especially when breathing out

Diagnosis of asthma

Diagnosing asthma usually involves a history, physical examination, and lung function tests (such as peak expiratory flow testing or gas exchange testing). Allergy testing may be used to identify potential triggers.

Asthma treatment and management

Although there is no cure for asthma, with proper treatment and management, its symptoms can be controlled and episodes reduced:

Inhaled medications:Rapid relievers (such as bronchodilators) and preventive drugs (such as inhaled corticosteroids).
Avoid triggers:Minimize contact with allergens or irritants.
Regular monitoring:Monitor airway status using a peak flow meter.
Make a contingency plan:Work with your doctor to develop a plan for dealing with an acute asthma attack.
Healthy lifestyle:Maintain a balanced diet and exercise regularly, but avoid situations that may induce exercise-induced asthma.

Asthma prevention

Ways to prevent asthma include:

Avoid exposure to known allergens and irritants.
Reduce exposure to air pollution.
Get regular vaccinations, such as the flu shot, to reduce the risk of infection.
Quit smoking and avoid secondhand smoke.

gastroesophageal reflux

What is gastroesophageal reflux?

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) is a digestive system disease that refers to the reflux of gastric acid or gastric contents into the esophagus, causing uncomfortable symptoms or complications. Common symptoms include heartburn, soreness, and chest discomfort.

Causes of gastroesophageal reflux

Lower esophageal sphincter insufficiency
Increased abdominal pressure due to obesity or pregnancy
Poor eating habits, such as excessive caffeine, alcohol, or a high-fat diet
smoking
Side effects of certain medications

Common symptoms

Heartburn (burning sensation under the breastbone)
Sourness (a sour taste in your mouth)
Difficulty or pain swallowing
Chronic cough or hoarseness
Nighttime symptoms such as chest pain or feeling of suffocation

Treatment and Prevention

lifestyle adjustments

Avoid fatty or spicy foods
Eat small and frequent meals to avoid overeating
Avoid lying down immediately after a meal. It is recommended to lie down 2-3 hours after a meal.
Raise the head of the bed about 15-20 cm
Lose weight and maintain a healthy body
Quit smoking and reduce alcohol intake

drug treatment

Antacids: relieve heartburn
H2 receptor antagonists: reduce gastric acid secretion
Proton pump inhibitors (PPI): inhibit gastric acid secretion and control symptoms in the long term

surgical treatment

When medical treatment fails or symptoms are severe, anti-reflux surgery, such as Nissen fundoplication, may be considered.

septicemia

Sepsis is an uncontrolled immune system response caused by infection, causing the body to cause damage to its own tissues and organs. This is a life-threatening medical emergency that can quickly progress to septic shock and multiple organ failure if not treated promptly.

Clinical symptoms and warning signs

The symptoms of sepsis are often non-specific, but you should seek immediate medical attention if the following warning signs appear:

Tachypnea: The breathing rate is significantly accelerated.
Tachycardia: abnormal beating of the pulse.
Changes in consciousness: Confusion, drowsiness, confusion, or extreme weakness.
Abnormal body temperature: high fever or hypothermia (chills and shaking).
Decreased blood pressure: Systolic blood pressure below 100 mmHg, causing marbling of the skin or a significant decrease in urine output.

Common causes and risk factors

Any type of infection can trigger sepsis, including bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections. Common initial sites of infection include:

Infection category	Specific cases
lung infection	pneumonia
urinary tract infection	Pyelonephritis, cystitis
abdominal infection	Peritonitis, cholecystitis, appendicitis
skin and blood	Catheter infection, severe cellulitis, wound infection

Medical treatment process

The treatment of sepsis emphasizes the golden time, and the following measures are usually taken clinically:

Antibiotic treatment: Give broad-acting antibiotics as soon as possible after diagnosis.
Fluid resuscitation: Maintain blood pressure and blood perfusion of organs through intravenous infusion (suspended drip).
Vasopressors: If blood pressure cannot be maintained despite fluid resuscitation, vasopressors are used.
Source control: Surgical drainage, debridement, or removal of contaminated medical catheters.
Organ Support: Oxygen, ventilator support, or kidney dialysis (blood filtration) as needed.

Early recognition and intervention are the keys to improving survival rates. High-risk groups such as the elderly, infants and young children, patients with chronic diseases (such as diabetes) and those with low immunity should pay special attention to physical changes after infection.

cancer

What is cancer?

Cancer is a disease in which a group of abnormal cells grow and divide uncontrollably and may invade other tissues. This abnormal cell proliferation can form tumors and threaten the body's normal functions.

Main types of cancer

According to the tissue or cell source of cancer, it can be divided into the following types:

Carcinoma:Epithelial cells originating from the skin or endocrine glands.
Sarcoma:Connective tissue derived from bone, muscle, fat, or blood vessels.
Leukemia:Affects the production of white blood cells in the bone marrow and blood.
Lymphoma and Myeloma:Affects cells of the immune system.
Central nervous system tumors:Includes cancers of the brain and spinal cord.

causes of cancer

The development of cancer is usually the result of a combination of factors, including:

Genetic factors:Genetic mutation or family history.
Environmental factors:Such as smoking, ultraviolet rays, radiation or pollutant exposure.
lifestyle:Such as poor diet, lack of exercise, and alcohol abuse.
Viral infection:Such as Helicobacter pylori, HPV, HBV.

cancer symptoms

Symptoms of cancer vary depending on the type and location of the lesion, but common warning signs include:

A persistent cough or hoarse voice.
Unexplained weight loss.
Persistent fatigue or weakness.
The wound does not heal for a long time.
Abnormal bleeding or discharge.
A lump or hard lump of tissue.

cancer treatments

Treatment of cancer depends on its type, stage and patient's health. Main methods include:

Operation:Remove the tumor or affected tissue.
Chemotherapy:Drugs are used to kill cancer cells or inhibit their growth.
Radiation therapy:Uses high-energy radiation to destroy cancer cells.
Immunotherapy:Strengthen the immune system to fight cancer.
Targeted therapy:Target specific genes or proteins in cancer cells.

How to prevent cancer?

The following measures can help reduce the risk of cancer:

Avoid smoking and excessive drinking.
Maintain a healthy weight and eating habits.
Get more exercise and stay active.
Get vaccinated against related viral infections, such as the HPV vaccine.
Avoid prolonged exposure to UV rays or other harmful substances.
Conduct regular health check-ups for early detection and treatment.

etiologypathogen

carcinogens

What are carcinogens?

Carcinogens refer to chemical substances, physical factors or biological factors that can cause cancer or promote the development of cancer. These substances may alter a cell's DNA, interfere with normal cell division, or cause a sustained inflammatory response.

Classification of carcinogens

According to the classification of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), carcinogens are divided into the following categories:

Category 1:Substances that are clearly carcinogenic to humans, such as tobacco, aflatoxin, and asbestos.
Category 2A:There is limited evidence for possible human carcinogens, such as acrylamide produced by high-temperature frying of food.
Category 2B:For substances that may cause cancer in humans, there is sufficient evidence from animal experiments, but insufficient evidence in humans.
Category 3:There is currently insufficient evidence to identify carcinogens.
Category 4:Possibly non-carcinogenic to humans.

Common carcinogens

The following are common carcinogens and their sources:

Chemical substances:Such as benzene, formaldehyde, and aflatoxin.
Physical factors:Such as ultraviolet rays, ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays).
Biological factors:Such as Helicobacter pylori, hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV, HCV), and human papillomavirus (HPV).
Living habits:Such as smoking, alcohol abuse, and unhealthy diet.

Mechanism of action of carcinogens

Carcinogens may cause cancer in the following ways:

Damage DNA and cause genetic mutations.
Interfere with the normal repair mechanisms of cells.
Cause chronic inflammation or cell proliferation.

How to prevent the effects of carcinogens?

Reducing your exposure to carcinogens can help reduce the likelihood of cancer:

Avoid smoking and secondhand smoke exposure.
Choose a healthy diet and avoid moldy foods.
Use sun protection and limit UV exposure.
Follow occupational safety regulations and stay away from high-risk chemicals.
Get vaccinated against HPV and HBV.

Detection and control of carcinogens

Governments and agencies take steps to reduce the impact of carcinogens on public health:

Implement food and water quality testing standards.
Regulate industrial and environmental emissions.
Promote health education and promotion.

Category 1 carcinogens

chemicals

Benzene
Formaldehyde
Aflatoxins
Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
Cadmium and cadmium compounds
Asbestos
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzo[a]pyrene)
Dioxins
Ethylene oxide

physical factors

Ultraviolet rays (UVA, UVB, UVC)
Ionizing radiation (such as X-rays, gamma rays)
Radon and its decay products

biological factors

Helicobacter pylori
Hepatitis B virus (HBV)
Hepatitis C virus (HCV)
Human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 (HPV 16, HPV 18)
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
Liver flukes (such as liver fluke Chinese liver fluke, Fasciolopsis ginger)
Schistosoma haematobium

Mixtures and Exposure Situations

Tobacco smoke (including mainstream smoke and second-hand smoke)
Alcoholic beverages
Coal tar
Arsenic in drinking water
Smoke from indoor coal burning

occupational exposure

Petroleum refining
Rubber manufacturing industry
Aluminum production
Wood processing (wood dust exposure)
Painting

PM2.5

Definition of PM2.5

PM2.5 refers to suspended particles with a diameter less than or equal to 2.5 microns, also known as fine suspended particles. The diameter of these particles is less than 1/20 of the diameter of a human hair, so they can penetrate deep into the respiratory system and even enter the bloodstream, affecting human health.

Sources of PM2.5

Human sources:Such as industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, coal-fired power generation, construction site dust, etc.
Natural sources:Such as volcanic ash, sandstorms, forest fires and organic compounds released by plants.
Second generation:Part of PM2.5 is generated by chemical reactions of gases in the atmosphere (such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides).

Impact of PM2.5 on health

Because PM2.5 particles are very small, they can cause the following health effects:

Respiratory diseases:Such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer.
Cardiovascular disease:Such as hypertension, coronary heart disease and stroke.
Children and the elderly:PM2.5 affects people with weakened immune systems more severely.
Short term impact:Such as cough, sore throat and eye irritation.

Environmental impact of PM2.5

In addition to health concerns, PM2.5 can also have negative impacts on the environment:

Reduced visibility:PM2.5 is one of the main components of smog, which can reduce visibility and affect traffic safety.
Climate Impact:PM2.5 can change cloud structure, further affecting rainfall patterns.

How to reduce the impact of PM2.5

To reduce the impact of PM2.5, the following measures can be taken:

Personal protection:On days with poor air quality, wear a mask with PM2.5 filtration and limit outdoor activities.
Family measures:Use an air purifier to reduce indoor pollution sources (such as smoking and burning items).
Social Action:Promote clean energy and reduce the use of fossil fuels.
Policy control:The government should set strict emission standards and promote emission reduction technologies in industry and transportation.

PM2.5 detection and standards

The concentration of PM2.5 is usually measured in micrograms per cubic meter of air (μg/m³) to measure. Countries have different standards for PM2.5, for example:

World Health Organization (WHO):The average annual concentration should be less than 5 μg/m³.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA):The average annual concentration should be less than 12 μg/m³.
Chinese standard:The average annual concentration should be less than 35 μg/m³.

in conclusion

PM2.5 is a serious health and environmental problem. By raising awareness of personal protection, improving energy use and driving policy changes, we can reduce the impact of PM2.5 and protect our own health and the future of our planet.

dust mites

Basic characteristics

House dust mites belong to the Arachnida class of Arthropoda. They are tiny (about 0.2 to 0.3 mm) and difficult to see with the naked eye. It mainly feeds on dander shed by humans and animals. It often inhabits mattresses, pillows, quilts, carpets and cloth furniture. It likes warm and humid environments.

type

The main dust mites most relevant to human health are:

House dust mite (Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus)
American dust mite (Dermatophagoides farinae)
Dermatophagoides farinae (Euroglyphus maynei)

health effects

Dust mites themselves do not bite, but the proteins in their feces and corpse debris are strong allergens that often cause:

allergic rhinitis
asthma
atopic dermatitis
Conjunctivitis

Allergy mechanism

When dust mite allergens enter the human respiratory tract or come into contact with the skin, they will cause an overreaction of the immune system and induce the production of IgE antibodies, which will then release histamine and inflammatory mediators, leading to symptoms such as sneezing, runny nose, coughing, asthma and skin itching.

prevention methods

Wash bed sheets, pillowcases, and quilt covers regularly with hot water (≥55°C).
Use anti-mite bedding covers to block the breeding of dust mites.
Keep indoor humidity below 50% to reduce the growth of dust mites.
Vacuum regularly and use a vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter.
Avoid heavy carpets and stuffed animals.

clinical treatment

Diseases caused by dust mite allergies can be treated in the following ways:

Antihistamines relieve allergy symptoms.
Nasal sprays (such as steroid sprays) to reduce inflammation.
Immunotherapy (desensitization therapy) to reduce allergic reactions to dust mites in the long term.

Dust mite density detection

Purpose and Importance

The purpose of dust mite density detection is to evaluate the number of dust mites in the environment to determine the risk of allergies and the effectiveness of improvement measures. When the number of dust mites is too high, the concentration of allergens increases, which can easily induce asthma, rhinitis and dermatitis.

Common detection methods

Dust sample collection method:Use a special vacuum cleaner or collection device to absorb dust from mattresses, pillows, carpets, etc. as samples for analysis.
Microscopic examination:The dust samples are flotated or directly smeared, and the number of dust mites is observed under a microscope.
Immunoassay:Detection of dust mite allergens (e.g. Der p 1, Der f 1 proteins) in dust, usually using ELISA technology.
Rapid test kit:Commercially available test kits can analyze allergen concentrations in environmental dust and are easy to operate but less accurate.

Evaluation criteria

There may be differences between studies and regions, but common standards are as follows:

per gram of dust exceeds2 micrograms of dust mite allergen, may increase the risk of allergies in sensitive people.
Exceed10 μg/g dust, it will significantly increase the probability of asthma and allergic rhinitis.

Application and significance

By regularly testing dust mite density, you can:

Find out if the indoor environment is suitable for people with allergies.
Evaluate the effectiveness of anti-mite measures (e.g. anti-mite bed covers, dehumidification, cleaning).
Provide physicians with a reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment.

Measures to reduce density

Keep relative humidity below 50% to prevent dust mites from breeding.
Wash bedding regularly in hot water and use anti-mite covers.
Reduce items such as carpets and dolls that tend to collect dust mites.
Use a HEPA filter vacuum cleaner to remove environmental dust.

cockroach dander

Overview

Cockroach dander is the tiny debris and secretions produced by cockroaches during their growth, molting and activity, including their exoskeleton fragments, feces, saliva and secretory gland substances. These substances easily drift into the air and adhere to dust and furniture surfaces, making them one of the common and powerful sources of allergens in indoor air.

Main ingredients and allergens

Bla g 1：Found in the digestive tract and feces of cockroaches, it is the most common major allergen.
Bla g 2：Enzyme proteins secreted by cockroaches are stable and easily suspended in the air.
Per a 1、Per a 2：The allergen specific to American cockroaches has a particularly significant impact on patients with respiratory allergies.
Cockroach exoskeleton fragments:Contains chitin and protein, which are stimulating to the immune system.

health effects

Long-term inhalation of cockroach dander or allergens can cause the immune system to produce specific IgE antibodies, causing a variety of allergic diseases:

Allergic rhinitis:Nasal congestion, sneezing, runny nose, and nasal itching.
asthma:Chronic inflammation of the airways, dyspnea, chest tightness and nighttime cough.
Atopic dermatitis:Exacerbation of skin rashes, itching, and chronic inflammation.
Conjunctivitis:Itchy, red, and watery eyes.

Immunological mechanism

After the allergens in cockroach dander enter the body through the respiratory tract, they will be taken up by antigen-presenting cells (APC) and activate T helper cells (Th2), prompting B cells to produce IgE antibodies against cockroach allergens. These IgE will attach to the surface of mast cells. When exposed to the allergen again, the mast cells will release histamine, leukotrienes and cytokines, causing allergic symptoms.

Environment and sources of exposure

Old buildings, humid environments and kitchen areas are most likely to accumulate cockroach dander.
Cockroach excrement and slough can be attached to carpets, mattresses, sofas and air conditioning filters along with dust.
Poor indoor ventilation will increase the concentration of suspended particles and keep allergens suspended in the air for a long time.

Prevention and control methods

Environmental cleanliness:Clean and remove kitchen waste and food residue regularly to avoid cockroach breeding.
To seal the gap:Block wall cracks, drainage holes and door cracks to prevent cockroaches from entering.
Air purification:Use a HEPA filter air purifier to remove suspended allergens.
Cockroach removal measures:Use roach gel bait, sticky roach papers or a professional cockroach exterminator service.
Anti-cockroach fabrics and bed covers:Reduce cockroach debris from clinging to bedroom areas.

Clinical and Testing

Whether you are allergic to cockroaches can be determined through blood testing for specific IgE (such as Bla g 1 IgE).
Environmental sample analysis can measure the concentration of cockroach allergens in indoor dust and assess allergy risks.

Latest research and development

Immunotherapy:Subcutaneous or sublingual immunotherapy targeting cockroach allergens is in development and may reduce IgE responses.
Environmental genetic survey:Research shows that cockroach allergy is highly prevalent among urban children and is related to residential density and ventilation quality.
AI and smart detection:The new sensor can instantly monitor indoor cockroach allergen concentrations to assist in allergy management.

super processed food

definition

Ultra-Processed Foods (UPFs) refer to foods that have undergone multiple industrial processes and contain artificial additives (such as colorants, flavors, preservatives, sweeteners, etc.) and refined raw materials (such as high fructose corn syrup, hydrogenated oils, modified starch). This type of food usually has complex ingredients and low nutritional value, but has a strong taste and can easily induce excessive intake.

Common types

Sugary drinks: carbonated drinks, energy drinks, fruit drinks.
Snacks and snacks: potato chips, biscuits, candies, chocolate.
Processed meat: sausage, ham, bacon, meat floss.
Instant and frozen foods: fried chicken, pizza, instant noodles.
Meal replacement and breakfast cereals: high-sugar cereals, protein bars.
Processed dairy products: cheese, processed cheese slices.
Condiments: soy sauce, ketchup, salad dressing.

feature

High sugar, high salt, high fat.
Low in protein and dietary fiber.
Contains a variety of artificial additives to improve color, fragrance and shelf life.
The manufacturing process is complicated and is usually very different from the original appearance of natural food.

health effects

Obesity and metabolic syndrome:High calories and low satiety increase the risk of obesity and diabetes.
Cardiovascular disease:Excess salt and trans fat increase the risk of high blood pressure and heart disease.
Gut Health:Low fiber and additives change the balance of intestinal flora and increase the risk of inflammation.
cancer:Some studies have shown that it is related to digestive tract cancer and breast cancer.

Alternatives and Suggestions

Focus on whole foods, such as fruits and vegetables, whole grains, beans, and nuts.
Choose simple processed foods such as frozen vegetables, whole wheat bread, and yogurt.
Read food labels and reduce your intake of artificial additives.
Reduce eating out and fast food, and increase the proportion of self-cooking.

scientific research

The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) point out that UPFs intake is positively correlated with obesity and diabetes.
A large European generational study shows that people who eat more than 20% of their calories from ultra-processed foods have a significantly higher risk of early death.
Public health policies are gradually promoting "reducing the intake of UPFs" and encouraging natural dietary patterns (such as the Mediterranean diet).

Processed cheese

Making Features

Processed cheese is a food made from natural cheese, added with ingredients such as emulsified salt, stabilizers, and preservatives, and then heated and processed. Its purpose is to improve shelf life, extend shelf life and change taste, making it widely used in sandwiches, ready-made products and snacks.

The role of sodium hexametaphosphate

Emulsifier function:Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) can combine with the calcium ions in cheese to break the bonds between proteins and evenly distribute fat and water.
Improve texture:Through the action of emulsifying salt, the oil and water in the cheese are not easily separated, and the cheese can maintain a smooth and soft texture.
Extended shelf life:Sodium hexametaphosphate can chelate metal ions, reduce oxidation reactions, and inhibit microbial growth.

Nutrition and health effects

High sodium content:Processed cheese contains added emulsified salts (such as sodium hexametaphosphate), and its sodium content is much higher than that of natural cheese. Excessive intake may increase the risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease.
Additive intake:Although food-grade sodium hexametaphosphate is considered safe, long-term intake of large amounts may affect kidney function and calcium-phosphorus balance.
Reduced nutritional value:Compared with natural cheese, processed cheese has slightly lower bioavailability of protein and calcium, and is usually higher in fat and calories.

Common uses

Fast food products: burgers, sandwiches, pizza.
Snack processing: cheese sticks, cheese sauce.
Ready-to-eat food: frozen food, convenience food.

Alternative suggestions

Choose natural cheese (such as cheddar, mozzarella) and avoid unnecessary additives.
Reduce the daily intake of processed cheese, especially for patients with high blood pressure and kidney disease.
Eat it with fresh fruits and vegetables to reduce the negative effects of high sodium intake.

Processed meat floss

Making Features

Pork floss is a common Chinese processed food. It usually uses pork, beef or fish as the main raw material, and is made through multiple processing procedures such as pickling, steaming, stirring, and frying. In order to improve the flavor and preservation, sugar, salt, soy sauce, oil and other food additives are often added to processed pork floss. Among the products on the market today, the main content of some "pork floss" is soybean flour, and the actual meat content is relatively low.

The difference between powdered pork floss and long pork floss

Powdered pork floss:The texture is finely chopped and soft, and the taste is powdery. Most of them are "soy flour and meat floss", with soy flour or flour as the main filler. The actual meat content is limited and the nutritional value is low.
Long strips of pork floss:It has an obvious fibrous feel and is in the shape of filaments or strips. It is usually made of real meat fiber, contains more animal protein, and has higher nutritional value than powdered meat floss.

Commonly added ingredients

Seasoning:Sugar, salt, soy sauce.
grease:Increase aroma and taste.
preservative:Such as nitrite, used to extend shelf life.
Coloring or flavoring:Some products may have additional ingredients added to enhance their appearance or taste.
Filling:Soy flour or flour, commonly found in powdered meat floss, reduces costs but is less nutritious.

Due to the lack of natural meat fiber and aroma, soy flour meat floss often adds more seasonings, spices and food additives, such as sugar, salt, soy sauce powder, yeast extract and essence, to enhance the taste and smell in order to imitate the flavor of meat.

Nutrition and health effects

High sodium content:Due to the addition of salt and soy sauce, meat floss has a high sodium content, and long-term excessive intake may increase the risk of hypertension.
High sugar and high oil:Common meat floss contains a high ratio of sugar and fat, which increases the risk of obesity and metabolic syndrome.
Differences in protein sources:Long strips of meat floss are mainly based on animal protein and have good absorption rates; powdery meat floss is mostly based on soy flour and has lower protein quality.
Additive risks:Some industrial products use preservatives and flavor enhancers, so be careful when consuming them for a long time.

Common uses

Food accompaniment: mixed with rice and porridge.
Bread and pastry fillings: meat floss bread, meat floss cake.
Snack: Eat as is or as a savory snack.

Alternatives and Suggestions

Choose real meat floss that is clearly labeled and long and fibrous, and avoid powdery meat floss whose main ingredient is soybean flour.
Control your intake and avoid eating large amounts every day.
Pair it with fresh vegetables and whole grains to reduce the impact of high sodium and oil.
You can choose to make your own meat floss to reduce the use of sugar, salt and additives and ensure pure raw materials.

chemical soy sauce

Basic introduction

Chemical soy sauce, also known as "instant soy sauce", is a seasoning liquid quickly produced by chemical methods. It is different from the traditional naturally brewed soy sauce made from soybeans and wheat through long-term fermentation. Chemical soy sauce is mainly made by hydrolyzing vegetable protein with acid, then adding pigments, spices, salt and other additives. The production process only takes a few days or even hours.

Production materials and methods

Main raw materials:Defatted soy flour, soybean meal, corn gluten or other vegetable protein.
Preparation method:Acid hydrolysis is performed with concentrated hydrochloric acid to decompose the protein into amino acids, which are then neutralized, decolorized, and deodorized, and salt, caramel pigments, flavors, etc. are added to form a soy sauce-like liquid.

feature

advantage:Quick and cheap to make, it has rich flavor and deep color.
shortcoming:It lacks the complex aroma and amino acid composition produced by natural fermentation, and its flavor is relatively simple; it may contain chemical by-products (such as chloropropanol), raising food safety concerns.

Comparison with naturally brewed soy sauce

Brewing soy sauce:Made through natural fermentation, which takes months to years, it has rich flavor levels and naturally produces amino acids and peptides.
Chemical soy sauce:It is quickly produced using chemical hydrolysis and lacks a natural aging process. Additional spices and colorings need to be added to imitate brewed soy sauce.

Common uses

Chemical soy sauce is often used in low-cost food processing or fast food seasonings, such as bento boxes, instant noodle seasoning packs, and affordable deli seasonings. It may also be used in some cheap restaurants.

food safety

Possible production due to acid hydrolysis process3-Chloropropanol (3-MCPD)and other hazardous substances, if not strictly controlled, may pose potential health risks. Therefore, many countries have strict inspections and regulations on the manufacturing process and residual substances of chemical soy sauce.

Packaging features

Generally, chemical soy sauce is mostlyplastic bottlePackaging has lower costs and is easier to sell and transport in large quantities; in contrast, high-quality naturally brewed soy sauce often uses glass bottles to maintain the flavor and avoid dissolution of chemicals.

Helicobacter pylori

What is Helicobacter pylori?

Helicobacter pylori (scientific name:Helicobacter pylori) is a spiral-shaped Gram-negative bacterium that mainly lives in the human gastric mucosa. It is the only bacterium that can survive in a highly acidic environment and is closely linked to a variety of stomach diseases.

Transmission routes of Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori is mainly spread through:

Oral-oral route:Such as sharing utensils or poor hygiene habits.
Fecal-oral route:Infection caused by drinking contaminated water or food.

Symptoms and effects of Helicobacter pylori

Infection with Helicobacter pylori may be asymptomatic, but some people may develop the following problems:

Gastritis or stomach ulcer
Stomach bloating and nausea
In severe cases, it may lead to gastric cancer

How to detect Helicobacter pylori?

Common detection methods include:

Breath test:Detects carbon 13 or carbon 14 markers in the patient's breath.
Serum antibody testing:Detection of antibodies against Helicobacter pylori.
Stool Antigen Test:Analysis of feces for H. pylori antigens.
Gastroscopy:A sample is taken to test for bacteria in the stomach lining.

Treatment of Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori is usually treated with "triple therapy" or "quadruple therapy", including:

Proton pump inhibitors (reduce gastric acid secretion)
Two or more antibiotics (bactericidal action)

Testing is required after completing the course of treatment to ensure that the bacteria have been completely eradicated.

Prevent Helicobacter pylori infection

The following are recommendations for preventing Helicobacter pylori infection:

Develop good personal hygiene habits, such as washing hands frequently.
Avoid sharing utensils and ensure food hygiene.
Drink clean water and avoid eating food that has not been adequately washed.

Aflatoxin

What is aflatoxin?

Aflatoxin is a secondary metabolite produced by certain koji bacteria (such as Aflatoxin and Aflatoxin) and is a strong carcinogen. It is commonly found in grains, nuts and produce that have been improperly stored in moist and warm conditions.

Source of aflatoxin

Aflatoxin mainly comes from the following foods or raw materials:

cereals:Such as corn, rice, wheat, etc.
nut:Such as peanuts, pistachios, almonds, etc.
spices:Such as chili powder and pepper.
Animal products:Animal meat and milk from contaminated feed.

The dangers of aflatoxin

Aflatoxin poses serious threats to human health, mainly including:

Acute poisoning:Ingestion of high doses of aflatoxin may cause liver failure or even death.
Chronic hazards:Long-term low-dose intake increases the risk of liver cancer, especially in people who are carriers of the hepatitis virus.
Immunosuppression:Weaken the function of the human immune system.

How to detect aflatoxin?

Commonly used detection methods include:

Enzyme immunoassay (ELISA):Sensitive and rapid detection of aflatoxin content in food.
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC):Accurately analyze contamination levels.
Quick screening test paper:Suitable for on-site testing.

How to prevent aflatoxin contamination?

The following measures can effectively prevent aflatoxin contamination:

Keep grains and nuts dry and store at low temperatures and low humidity.
Avoid eating foods that have an odor, are discolored, or are moldy.
Adopting advanced processing technologies such as optical sorting and detoxification.
The government regulates and enforces food safety standards.

Advice on handling contaminated food

If food is found to be contaminated with aflatoxin, you should stop eating it immediately and perform the following actions:

Small-scale contamination: Remove contaminated parts, but handle with caution.
Large-scale pollution: Notify relevant agencies for professional destruction or harmless treatment.

acrylamide

definition

Acrylamide is a chemical used primarily in the industrial manufacture of polyacrylamide, but also occurs naturally during certain high-temperature cooking processes, especially in foods containing carbohydrates.

Generate source

High temperature cooking:Acrylamide may be produced by the reaction of asparagine with reducing sugars when food is fried, baked or grilled at temperatures above 120°C.
Processed foods:Such as potato chips, french fries, biscuits, coffee and bread, etc.

health risks

Cancer risk:Animal experiments show that long-term exposure to high concentrations of acrylamide may increase the risk of cancer.
Neurotoxicity:High concentrations of acrylamide may affect nervous system function.

Ways to Reduce Exposure

Reduce the frequency of frying, baking and grilling, and use low-temperature cooking methods such as steaming instead.
Avoid overcooking or excessively browning the surface of food.
Eat more fresh fruits and vegetables and eat a balanced diet to reduce your risk of exposure.

Detection and Monitoring

Food safety agencies often monitor acrylamide levels in foods and provide safety guidance. Individuals should also focus on healthy eating habits.

legal norms

Many countries have formulated relevant regulations requiring food manufacturers to take measures to reduce acrylamide content to protect consumer health.

blood fat

concept

Blood Lipids is a general term for lipids in the blood, mainly including cholesterol and triglycerides, which are transported through lipoproteins. Appropriate concentration helps stabilize cell membranes and synthesize hormones and bile acids; excessive concentration or imbalance increases the risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease.

Main indicators

Total cholesterol (TC): Total amount synthesized in the body + dietary intake.
Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C): Commonly known as "bad cholesterol", if it is too high, it will easily deposit on the blood vessel walls.
High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C): Commonly known as "good cholesterol", it helps bring excess cholesterol back to the liver.
Triglycerides (TG): Energy storage lipids, excessive levels are associated with pancreatitis and metabolic risks.
non-HDL-C:= TC − HDL-C, reflects all “atherosclerotic” lipoproteins.

Common reference ranges (adults, fasting)

Total cholesterol:< 200 mg/dL（< 5.18 mmol/L）
LDL-C：< 100 mg/dL（< 2.6 mmol/L）最佳；100–129 接近最佳；≥160 高
HDL-C: ≥ 40 for men and ≥ 50 mg/dL (≥ 1.0 / 1.3 mmol/L) for women; the higher, the better
Triglycerides:< 150 mg/dL（< 1.7 mmol/L）理想；150–499 偏高；≥ 500 很高
non–HDL-C：< 130 mg/dL（< 3.4 mmol/L）理想

Common calculations

Friedewald formula (mg/dL)：LDL ≈ TC − HDL − TG/5（not applicableat TG ≥ 400 or non-fasting)
Unit conversion: Cholesterol (TC/LDL/HDL) mmol/L = mg/dL ÷ 38.67; TG mmol/L = mg/dL ÷ 88.57

Influencing factors

genetics: Familial hypercholesterolemia, etc.
diet: Refined sugar, trans fat, excess saturated fat, alcohol
lifestyle: Lack of exercise, smoking, lack of sleep, stress
Diseases and Drugs: Diabetes, hypothyroidism, kidney/liver disease, certain medications

Improvement focus

diet: Eat more fruits and vegetables, whole grains, beans and fish; replace part of the saturated fat with olive oil/nuts; reduce sugary drinks and processed snacks; limit alcohol (especially those with high TG).
sports: ≥150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic training per week + resistance training 2 times per week can increase HDL and reduce TG and non-HDL.
weight management: Weight loss of 5–10% can significantly improve TG and LDL.
Quit smoking and sleep: Quitting smoking can increase HDL; get regular sleep of 7–9 hours a night.

When to seek medical treatment/medication considerations

LDL-C is obviously high, non-HDL-C is high, or there is a history of diabetes, chronic kidney disease, or atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD).
Family history of premature cardiovascular disease or suspicion of familial hypercholesterolemia.
TG ≥ 500 mg/dL requires early management to reduce the risk of pancreatitis.

Summary of key points

Blood fat is necessary for health but needs to be maintained within an appropriate range; the management strategy is based on "diet + exercise + weight control", and the doctor will evaluate whether drugs (such as statin, ezetimibe, PCSK9 inhibitors or TG-lowering drugs) are needed based on individual risks. It is recommended to follow up with regular blood draws and discuss individualized goals with a professional.

Triglycerides

definition

Triglyceride is a fat molecule composed of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids. It is one of the main forms of energy storage in the human body.

source

Dietary sources:Foods high in fat, such as fried foods, animal fats, dairy products and vegetable oils.
Endogenous synthesis:The body can convert excess sugar and calories into triglycerides and store them in fat tissue.

Function

Provide energy: When hunger or energy needs increase, it is broken down into fatty acids and glycerol to supply energy.
Store energy: stored as fat in fat cells for future use.
Supports cell function: Fatty acids are an important component of cell membranes.

normal range

The normal range for triglycerides in the blood is less than 150 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL). Higher than this range may increase health risks.

health effects

Too high:May increase risk of cardiovascular disease, pancreatitis, and metabolic syndrome.
Too low:May be related to malnutrition or metabolic abnormalities.

Ways to lower levels

Control sugar and refined carbohydrates in your diet.
Increase foods rich in Omega-3 fatty acids, such as fish and flax seeds.
Maintain regular exercise to promote fat metabolism.
Reduce alcohol intake, as alcohol promotes the synthesis of triglycerides.
Avoid high-fat and high-calorie diets.

Detection and Monitoring

Triglyceride levels are usually assessed through blood tests, and regular health checkups are recommended to detect abnormalities early and intervene.

uric acid

Overview

Uric Acid is the final product of purine metabolism in the body. Purin mainly comes from diet (such as meat, seafood) and the breakdown of cell nucleic acids in the body. After uric acid is produced in the liver, it is transported to the kidneys through the blood and then excreted from the body through urine.

normal concentration

Men: 3.4–7.0 mg/dL
Women: 2.4–6.0 mg/dL

If the concentration of uric acid in the blood is too high, it is called hyperuricemia, which may cause gout and kidney-related diseases.

Causes of high uric acid

Eating too much purine (such as red meat, organ meats, seafood).
Alcohol, especially beer (which contains more purine).
Obesity and metabolic syndrome.
The kidney's ability to excrete uric acid decreases.
Certain medications (such as diuretics, aspirin).

clinical impact

gout: Urate crystals deposit in joints, causing acute redness, swelling and severe pain.
kidney stones: Uric acid crystals accumulate in the urinary tract, causing stones.
chronic kidney disease: Long-term hyperuricemia may impair kidney function.
cardiovascular disease: Correlated with hypertension and arteriosclerosis.

Improvement methods

Control your diet: Reduce purine foods and sugary drinks.
Drink more water: Promote uric acid excretion.
Control weight and improve metabolism.
Reduce alcohol intake.
Use drugs when necessary: such as Allopurinol and Febuxostat.

Pulin content in food

Purin and health

Purine is an important source of purine nucleotides metabolized by the human body, and its decomposition product is uric acid. Excessive intake of high-purine foods may lead to hyperuricemia and gout. According to the content, it can be divided into three categories: low, medium and high.

Gaopulin food (content 150–1000mg per 100g)

Animal internal organs (liver, kidney, heart, brain)
Sardines, herring, anchovies, trout
Oysters, scallops, clams
Meat essence, broth powder, yeast powder

Medium purin food (content 50–150mg per 100g)

Red meat (beef, pork, lamb)
Poultry (chicken, duck, goose)
Some fish (salmon, carp, eel)
Legumes (soybeans, black beans, red beans, lentils)
Spinach, asparagus, cauliflower, mushrooms

Low-purine food (0-50mg per 100g)

Most vegetables (tomatoes, cucumbers, radishes, onions)
Fruit (apples, grapes, bananas, watermelon)
Eggs, milk and products
Rice, noodles, bread

dietary advice

Patients with high uric acid or gout should avoid high-purine foods, reduce their intake of medium-purine foods, and choose more low-purine foods. At the same time, please note:

Keep drinking enough water to help excretion of uric acid.
Avoid excessive alcohol consumption, especially beer (containing yeast, gopurin).
Control your weight and avoid metabolic burden caused by high-calorie diet.

diagnosis

The complete steps of Western medicine diagnosis

History taking
Physical examination
Differential diagnosis
Auxiliary inspection (Laboratory & Imaging)
Final diagnosis and clinical staging

Common symptoms → Possible disease checklist (essential for clinical emergency/outpatient clinics)

Chief complaint	Most common/fatal diseases (red must be excluded)	Need to be checked immediately
acute chest pain	AMI, pulmonary embolism, aortic dissection, pneumothorax, pericardial tamponade, esophageal rupture	ECG, Troponin, D-dimer, chest CT
acute abdominal pain	AAA rupture, intestinal obstruction, perforation, ectopic pregnancy rupture, acute pancreatitis, acute cholecystitis	Abdominal standing X-ray, abdominal ultrasound/CT, β-hCG
acute headache	Subarachnoid hemorrhage, stroke, encephalitis/meningitis,glaucoma	Head CT, lumbar puncture, fundus examination
difficulty breathing	Pneumothorax, pulmonary embolism, heart failure, foreign body in airway, acute attack of asthma	CXR、BNP、D-dimer、ABG
altered consciousness	Stroke, hypoglycemia, electrolyte abnormalities, sepsis, epilepsy, drugs/alcohol	Blood sugar, electrolytes, head CT, blood culture
Fever+chills	Sepsis, infective endocarditis, pelvic inflammatory disease	Blood culture × 3, urine culture, chest X-ray

Common blood test shorthand normal values (common units in Taiwan)

project	normal value	clinical significance shorthand
WBC	4,000–11,000	>18,000 or<4,000 必找原因
Hb (male/female)	13.5–17.5 / 12–16 g/dL	<7 考慮輸血
PLT	150–400 ×10³/μL	<50,000 易出血
Creatinine	0.6–1.2 mg/dL	>1.5 Consider kidney damage
eGFR	>90	<60 為CKD 3期
Na	135–145 mEq/L	<120 或 >155 fatal
K	3.5–5.0 mEq/L	>6.0 Process ECG immediately
Glucose	70–100 mg/dL (fasting)	>400 or<50 急症
Troponin I	<0.04 ng/mL	Rise → myocardial damage
BNP / NT-proBNP	<100 / <300 pg/mL	The higher the level, the greater the likelihood of heart failure.
D-dimer	<500 ng/mL	Negative test can rule out PE (low risk)
CRP	<10 mg/L	>100 Usually severe infection
ALT	<40 U/L	>1000 Acute hepatitis or ischemia
Amylase / Lipase	<3倍上限	Diagnosing acute pancreatitis

Common diagnostic imaging shorthand

CXR: Heart>50%→cardiomegaly; lung field infiltration→pneumonia/pulmonary edema; pneumothorax→disappearance of lung markings + pleural line
ECG 12 leads must be memorized：
- STEMI: ≥2 consecutive leads ST↑ ≥1mm (chest lead ≥2mm)
- Wellens' sign: V2-V3 deep inverted T or biphasic T → severe LAD stenosis
- Brugada wave: V1-V2 coved ST↑→high risk of sudden death
Head CT: High density → subarachnoid hemorrhage; low density area → cerebral infarction (visible in >6 hours)
Abdominal CT: Free air → intestinal perforation; aortic dissection → intimal patch + double lumen

Shorthand of commonly used diagnostic criteria (most commonly reported in clinical meetings)

Sepsis: Sepsis-3 → qSOFA ≥2 (RR≥22, SBP≤100, altered consciousness)
Acute coronary heart disease: NSTEMI → Troponin rise + chest pain or ECG changes
Heart failure: Framingham criteria + BNP↑
Diabetes: HbA1c ≥6.5% or fasting blood glucose ≥126 mg/dL ×2
Acute kidney injury: AKI (KDIGO) → Cr rise ≥0.3 mg/dL within 48 hours
Pneumonia: CURB-65 ≥3 → Hospitalization recommended
Pulmonary embolism: Wells score + D-dimer

Rhinorrhoea

Definition and symptoms

Post-nasal drip (PND) is when mucus secreted by the nose or sinuses accumulates in the back of the throat or flows down the throat.
Under normal circumstances, the nasal cavity continues to produce a small amount of mucus to moisten and clean the nasal cavity, and to take away inhaled particles (such as dust, bacteria). This mucus is usually swallowed unknowingly along with saliva.
When mucus is secreted too much, is too thick, or the throat feels sensitive, people will obviously feel nasal discharge.
Common symptoms include:
- The need for constant throat clearing.
- Chronic cough that is worse at night or in the morning.
- Feeling of a foreign body, itching or pain in the throat (Sore throat).
- Hoarseness.
- Bad breath.
- Sometimes it leads to ear infections or sinus infections.

Main causes

Infections: The common cold, flu, or sinusitis can increase nasal mucus production.
Allergies: Seasonal allergies (like pollen) or year-round allergies (like dust mites, pet dander) can cause nasal passages to become inflamed and produce excess mucus.
Environmental factors: Dry air, low temperatures, air pollutants, strong odors, cigarette smoke, etc.
Structural problems: Deviated septum or nasal polyps may prevent mucus from draining properly.
Non-infectious rhinitis: such as vasomotor rhinitis, which is an overreaction to certain stimuli (such as temperature changes, pressure).
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD): The upward flow of stomach acid irritates the throat, which may aggravate the feeling of nasal discharge or cause coughing.

Home management and self-care

Keep your nasal cavity moist:
- Use a saline irrigation or Neti pot to dilute and remove excess mucus.
- Use a humidifier or inhale steam (such as in the shower) to moisten your nose and throat.
Drink more water: Keeping your body hydrated will help thin mucus.
Elevate your head: Elevate your pillow when sleeping to help mucus drain smoothly and avoid accumulation during the night.
Avoid Irritants: Stay away from known allergens, fumes and strong chemical odors.

medical treatment

If symptoms persist or are severe, a doctor should be consulted to determine the underlying cause and receive appropriate treatment:

Antihistamines: Suitable for nasal discharge caused by allergies.
Decongestants: Help constrict the blood vessels in the nose and reduce mucus secretion.
Steroid nasal sprays: Reduce inflammation of the nasal cavity and sinuses.
Mucolytics: Such as guaifenesin, which helps to thin mucus and make it easier to pass.
Antibiotics: Use only when bacterial sinusitis is determined to be the cause.
Treating the underlying condition: For example, treating gastroesophageal reflux or surgically correcting structural problems in the nose (such as a deviated septum).

tinnitus

what is tinnitus

Tinnitus is a subjective feeling, which refers to the continuous sound felt in the ears or head without external sound stimulation, which may be buzzing, hissing or ringing. Tinnitus can occur in one or both ears, and the degree of impact varies from person to person.

Common causes of tinnitus

Noise exposure:Prolonged exposure to high-decibel noise can damage the hair cells in the inner ear, causing tinnitus.
Hearing loss:Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis) often accompanies tinnitus.
Ear diseases:Such as otitis media, earwax obstruction, or Meniere's disease.
Blood vessel problems:For example, high blood pressure or hemangioma may cause tinnitus, especially pulsatile tinnitus.
Drug side effects:Certain antibiotics, anticancer drugs, and analgesics may cause tinnitus.

Effects of tinnitus

Persistent tinnitus can have a significant impact on quality of life, including affecting sleep, concentration, and mood, and in severe cases may even trigger anxiety and depression.

Diagnosis and treatment of tinnitus

Diagnosing tinnitus requires a detailed history and hearing tests, and sometimes imaging tests (such as MRI or CT) may be required. Treatment modalities include:

Eliminate the cause:Such as removing earwax or treating underlying conditions.
Hearing assistive devices:Hearing aids or tinnitus maskers can improve tinnitus symptoms.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT):Help patients adjust their response to tinnitus and reduce psychological stress.
Lifestyle adjustments:This includes avoiding noise, reducing stress, and eliminating stimulating foods (such as caffeine).

How to prevent tinnitus

Methods to prevent tinnitus include protecting your hearing, avoiding prolonged exposure to high-decibel environments, using your ears moderately, and having your hearing checked regularly.

Dizziness

Basic concepts

Vertigo is a subjective sensory abnormality in which patients often feel that the surrounding environment or themselves are spinning, shaking, or losing balance. It is not a single disease but a syndrome that can be caused by inner ear, neurological, cardiovascular, metabolic or psychological factors.

Main types

Peripheral dizziness:Caused by the inner ear or vestibular nerve, such as benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), Meniere's disease, vestibular neuritis, otitis media, etc.
Central dizziness:Caused by brainstem or cerebellar lesions, such as brainstem ischemia, brain tumors, multiple sclerosis, and migraine-induced dizziness.
Generalized dizziness:Caused by low blood pressure, anemia, hypoglycemia or arrhythmia.

Common causes

Abnormalities in the balance organ of the inner ear (vestibular system).
Sudden drop in blood pressure or postural hypotension.
Anemia or insufficient oxygen supply to the blood.
Medication side effects (such as sedatives, antihypertensive drugs, antiepileptic drugs).
Anxiety, stress, or fatigue.

Symptoms

Feeling spinning, dizzy, shaken, or tilted.
Nausea, vomiting, sweating.
Unstable balance and deviated gait.
Hearing loss, tinnitus (if it is inner ear dizziness).

diagnostic methods

Otolaryngology examination (vestibular function test, nystagmus test).
Neurological evaluation (brainstem, cerebellar function).
Blood tests (anemia, electrolytes, blood sugar).
Imaging examination (MRI, CT).

Treatment

Treat the cause:For example, treating otitis media, controlling blood pressure, improving anemia, etc.
Medication:Commonly used antivestibular drugs (meclizine, theophylline), antiemetics (metoclopramide), and vasodilators.
Vestibular rehabilitation training:Specific head movements (such as Epley maneuver) are performed for benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, etc.
Life adjustments:Avoid changing positions quickly, get enough sleep, and reduce caffeine and alcohol.

Traditional Chinese Medicine Perspective

Traditional Chinese medicine believes that dizziness is mostly caused by "wind, fire, phlegm, and deficiency", such as excessive liver yang, insufficient qi and blood, kidney essence deficiency, or phlegm obstruction. Treatment is often based on the principles of calming the liver and subduing yang, nourishing qi and nourishing blood, resolving phlegm and removing turbidity. Commonly used prescriptions include Gastrodia Gouteng Decoction, Banxia Atractylodes Tianma Decoction, Guipi Decoction, etc.

Prevention advice

Avoid staying up late and excessive stress, and maintain a regular schedule.
Add enough fluids and electrolytes to prevent hypotension.
Slow down your movements when getting up to avoid postural dizziness.
Eat a balanced diet and avoid too much salt or spicy foods.

Feeling spinning or dizzy

Basic concepts

"Feeling spinning" and "dizziness" are the two main manifestations of dizziness. The former often belongs toVertigo, the patient feels that the surrounding environment or himself is rotating; the latter mostly belongs toNon-rotational dizziness (Dizziness), feeling light, weightless, lethargic or unsteady.

Feeling spinning (Vertigo)

Sensory rotation usually results from abnormalities in the vestibular system of the inner ear. The vestibular system includes the semicircular canals and otolith organs and is responsible for detecting head movement and balance. When the inner ear function on one side is damaged, the brain receives asymmetric signals, which creates the illusion of rotation.

Common causes

Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV):The otoliths fall off into the semicircular canals and stimulate the receptors with head movement, causing a brief spinning sensation.
Meniere's disease:Abnormal pressure of lymphatic fluid in the inner ear causes recurring dizziness, tinnitus and hearing loss.
Vestibular neuritis:Viral infection causes inflammation of the vestibular nerve, leading to severe rotational vertigo.
Central dizziness:Such as brain stem or cerebellar lesions, migraine dizziness.

accompanying symptoms

Optical illusion (sense of surrounding rotation)
Nausea, vomiting
Balance imbalance, unsteady gait
Tinnitus or hearing changes (inner ear vertigo)

Dizziness

Dizziness usually does not involve a spinning sensation, and is mostly caused by temporary insufficient blood supply to the brain, hypotension, abnormal blood sugar, or anxiety. It is often seen during postural changes or physical fatigue.

Common causes

Postural hypotension:Standing up suddenly caused a sudden drop in blood pressure and temporary ischemia in the brain.
Anemia or low blood sugar:Insufficient oxygen supply or energy causes a feeling of dizziness in the head.
Anxiety and hyperventilation syndrome:Excessive breathing causes carbon dioxide to drop, causing dizziness and numbness.
Drug side effects:Such as antihypertensive drugs, sedatives, anti-epileptic drugs, etc.

Diagnosis and Assessment

Otolaryngology: vestibular function test, nystagmus reaction test.
Neurology: Brainstem and cerebellar function testing.
Blood tests: blood sugar, hemoglobin, electrolytes.
Imaging examination: MRI or CT to rule out central lesions.

Treatment direction

Rotational vertigo:For otoliths, vestibulitis, etc., reduction manipulation or anti-vestibular drug treatment is performed.
Dizziness:Improve blood pressure and blood sugar stability, and moderately replenish water and electrolytes.
Avoid sudden changes in posture, get enough sleep, and reduce caffeine and alcohol intake.

Traditional Chinese Medicine Perspective

Traditional Chinese medicine believes that "dizziness" and "vertigo" are mostly caused by wind, fire, phlegm, and deficiency. Common syndrome types include excessive liver yang, insufficient qi and blood, and turbid phlegm. Treatment is mainly based on calming the liver and subduing yang, replenishing qi and blood, resolving phlegm and removing turbidity. Commonly used prescriptions include Gastrodia Gouteng Yin, Banxia Atractylodes Tianma Decoction, etc.

Modern Research and Vestibular Physiology

Modern medicine can observe the activity changes of the vestibular nucleus and cerebellum through vestibular evoked myopotentials (VEMP) and functional MRI. Research shows that imbalances in the flow of hair cells, otoliths, and semicircular canals in the inner ear can lead to incorrect sensory integration in the vestibular cortex of the brain, leading to rotational illusions and balance disorders.

Stomachache

Common classifications of stomach pain (by location)

parts	Common diseases (Western medicine)	Common syndrome types in traditional Chinese medicine
Center of upper abdomen	Gastritis, gastric ulcer, duodenal ulcer, acute pancreatitis, gallstones	Stomach cold, liver and stomach qi stagnation, spleen and stomach deficiency and cold
right upper quadrant	Acute cholecystitis, gallstones, hepatitis	Liver and gallbladder damp-heat, liver stagnation and qi stagnation
left upper quadrant	Spleen problems, pancreatitis tail end	Spleen deficiency and dampness
Periumbilical	Enteritis, early appendicitis, irritable bowel syndrome	Cold-dampness trapped spleen, food accumulation
right lower abdomen	Acute appendicitis, enteritis, female ectopic pregnancy, ovarian cyst torsion	Intestinal dampness and heat, qi stagnation and blood stasis
Left lower abdomen	diverticulitis, irritable bowel syndrome	Damp heat in large intestine
Center of lower abdomen	Cystitis, gynecological problems (endometriosis)	Dampness and heat in the lower burner, cold and condensation of the uterus
Full or variable abdomen	Irritable bowel syndrome, gastroenteritis, intestinal obstruction	Spleen deficiency, liver stagnation and spleen deficiency

Critical Red Flag Symptoms (Always seek medical attention immediately)

Severe, unbearable pain that persists without relief
With high fever and chills (suspected infection or perforation)
Vomiting blood or black stool (upper gastrointestinal bleeding)
bloody or tarry stools
A stiff, slab-like abdomen (peritonitis)
Lower abdominal pain in pregnant women (ectopic pregnancy)
Sudden severe pain in the elderly (aortic aneurysm, intestinal ischemia)

Common causes and examinations of Western medicine

disease	Typical characteristics	Recommended to check
acute gastritis	Upper abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting after eating bad food	gastroscopy
gastric/duodenal ulcer	Pain on an empty stomach (duodenum), pain on a full stomach (gastric ulcer)	Gastroscopy + Helicobacter pylori detection
acute appendicitis	Periumbilical → right lower quadrant metastatic pain, rebound pain, fever	Blood inflammation index, abdominal ultrasound/CT
Gallstones/Cholecystitis	Cramping in the right upper abdomen after meals, radiating to the right shoulder	abdominal ultrasound
acute pancreatitis	Severe pain in the upper abdomen radiating to the lower back and vomiting	Serum Amylase/Lipase, abdominal CT
irritable bowel syndrome	Abdominal pain with diarrhea/constipation, worsened by stress	Diagnosis of exclusion (Rome IV criteria)
Gynecological problems	Lower abdominal pain and vaginal bleeding before and after menstruation	Gynecological ultrasound, β-hCG

Quick check on TCM syndrome differentiation (the most common in clinical practice)

Cold evil strikes: Sudden colic, relieved by warmth, white tongue coating → Liangfu Pills, Zhengqi Tianxiang Powder
Food accumulation: Fullness when in pain, sour belching, decreased abdominal pain → Baohe Pills
Liver Qi stagnation: Distending pain, chest tightness and sighing, stringy pulse → Bupleurum Shugan Powder, Sini Powder
Damp and hot accumulation: Abdominal pain and burning, bitter mouth, constipation, yellow and greasy coating → Pueraria Qinlian Decoction, Dachengqi Decoction
Deficiency of spleen and stomach: Dull pain, longing for warmth, fasting pain → Huangqi Jianzhong Decoction, Lizhong Decoction
blood stasis: Fixed tingling, resistance to pressing, dark purple tongue → Shaofu Zhuyu Decoction, Xuefu Zhuyu Decoction

Commonly used acupoints for quick-acting pain relief

Zusanli (ST36) + Zhongwan (CV12): various gastrointestinal pains
Neiguan (PC6) + Gongsun (SP4): stomachache and vomiting
Liangqiu (ST34) + Tiaokou (ST38): acute stomach pain (Qie point)
Tianshu (ST25) + Dachangshu (BL25): bowel sounds and abdominal pain
Taichong (LR3) + Yanglingquan (GB34): Hepatobiliary and hypochondriac pain
Hegu (LI4) + Taichong (LR3): Siguan points, qi deficiency and pain all over the body

Home Mitigation Recommendations (Non-Emergency)

Temporarily fasting and eating light meals with small amounts and frequent meals
Apply hot compress to the abdomen (effective for cold pain)
Avoid cold and spicy foods
If you are stressed, try taking deep breaths or taking a walk.
If it persists for more than 2 days or worsens, seek medical attention.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

definition

Traditional Chinese medicine is a traditional Chinese medical system with a long history. It emphasizes the "unity of nature and man" and the "balance of yin and yang". It maintains health and treats diseases through syndrome differentiation and treatment.

core theory

Yin-Yang theory:It is believed that the operation of the human body and nature depends on the dynamic balance of yin and yang.
Five Elements Theory:Wood, fire, earth, metal, and water interact with each other and are used to explain internal organs and diseases.
Zang-fu theory:Emphasize the physiological functions and interrelationships of the internal organs.
Qi, blood and body fluids:Qi is the foundation of life activities, and blood and body fluid are nutrients and nourishing substances.
Meridian theory:The meridian system connects the organs and limbs and is the basis for acupuncture and other treatments.

Treatment

traditional Chinese medicine:Use herbs, minerals and animal remedies to harmonize the body.
Acupuncture:By stimulating the meridians and acupuncture points, it can dredge Qi and blood and adjust functions.
Massage and Massage:Use techniques to relax muscles and bones and promote circulation.
Qigong and Tai Chi:Combine breathing and movement to strengthen your mind and body.
Diet therapy:Adjust your diet according to your physical constitution and illness.

Application areas

Chronic diseases and sub-health conditioning
Pain management (such as headaches, arthritis, low back pain)
Stress and Emotional Adjustment
Enhanced immune function

modern development

Traditional Chinese medicine is gradually integrated with modern medicine to form "integrated Chinese and Western medicine". With the support of the World Health Organization (WHO), traditional Chinese medicine has been integrated into some international medical systems.

Interesting facts

The Huangdi Neijing is regarded as a classic of traditional Chinese medicine. It was written more than 2,000 years ago and is still an important basis for clinical practice and theory.

Traditional Chinese Medicine Research Unit

Chinese mainland

China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences:Founded in 1955, it is China's highest-level traditional Chinese medicine research and teaching institution, with institutions such as the Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and the Institute of Acupuncture.
Beijing University of Chinese Medicine:It is a key university directly under the Ministry of Education, integrating teaching, research and clinical practice, and has a modern research center for traditional Chinese medicine.
Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine:He specializes in basic research and clinical application of traditional Chinese medicine and attaches great importance to research on the integration of traditional Chinese and Western medicine.
Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine:One of the earliest colleges of traditional Chinese medicine established in China, it has made outstanding contributions to the research of acupuncture and prescription science.
Guangzhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine:It is famous for its scientific research on traditional Chinese medicine pharmacology and acupuncture, and has many key clinical disciplines.

Taiwan

China Medical University (Taichung):The most representative Chinese medicine research and education institution in Taiwan, it has a College of Traditional Chinese Medicine and a Chinese Medicine Resource Research Center.
National Yang-Ming Chiao Tung University Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine:Focus on the integration of basic theories of traditional Chinese medicine and modern medicine.
Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Taipei Medical University:Committed to clinical and experimental research on traditional Chinese medicine, emphasizing cross-field medical applications.

Hongkong

Hong Kong Baptist University School of Chinese Medicine:It uses modern scientific research methods to study traditional Chinese medicine and acupuncture, and has a traditional Chinese medicine innovation platform.
School of Chinese Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong:Focus on clinical and basic research on traditional Chinese medicine and promote the modernization and internationalization of traditional Chinese medicine.

internationality

National Institutes of Health (NIH) Center for Complementary and Integrative Health:There are research projects on traditional Chinese medicine and acupuncture.
Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, University of Hamburg, Germany:Research the efficacy of acupuncture and traditional Chinese medicine and promote clinical trials.
Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine Research, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT), Australia:Committed to traditional Chinese medicine education and clinical research.

Summarize

Traditional Chinese medicine research units are located all over the world, with research institutions in mainland China and Taiwan as the core forces. They have gradually established transnational cooperation networks in Europe, the United States and the Asia-Pacific region to promote the modernization and international development of traditional Chinese medicine.

Treatise on Febrile Diseases

Concept introduction

"Treatise on Febrile Diseases" is a TCM classic written by Zhang Zhongjing, a famous doctor in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. It mainly records the diagnosis, pathology, prescriptions and treatment methods of exogenous diseases (diseases caused by external six evils, especially typhoid fever). The whole book emphasizes syndrome differentiation and treatment, and attaches great importance to the identification of disease changes and symptoms.

Codification background

Period of writing: around the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (around 196 AD)
Purpose of the book: To collate the clinical experience at that time and propose a systematic treatment plan to cope with the social environment where war and epidemics prevailed.

Main content

Six classics syndrome differentiation: Exogenous diseases are divided into the six meridians of Taiyang, Yangming, Shaoyang, Taiyin, Shaoyin and Jueyin according to symptoms and disease progression, corresponding to different treatment strategies.
prescription medicine: Contains a variety of classic prescriptions, such as Ephedra Decoction, Guizhi Decoction, Baihu Decoction, etc., and records the principles and usage of the prescriptions.
Syndrome differentiation and treatment: It emphasizes identifying symptoms based on changes in the condition and prescribing the right medicine, rather than simply treating based on the name of the disease.
Disease course and pathological analysis: Record in detail the development stage of the disease, cold, heat, deficiency and other pathological characteristics.

academic value

It laid the theoretical foundation for TCM syndrome differentiation and treatment.
Influenced later generations of TCM clinical practice, prescription science and compilation of TCM textbooks.
Known as the "classic of typhoid fever", it still has guiding value in the treatment of acute infectious diseases with traditional Chinese medicine.

application

Clinical TCM: used for the syndrome differentiation treatment of exogenous fever, colds, influenza and acute infectious diseases.
Research on prescriptions and medicines: Provides the basis for clinical application of ancient prescriptions and modern pharmacological research.
Education and Academics: An important textbook for undergraduate and further education courses in Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Six classics syndrome differentiation

Concept introduction

Six-meridian syndrome differentiation is the core method used to analyze the condition of exogenous diseases (especially typhoid fever) in Treatise on Febrile Diseases. Zhang Zhongjing divided the development of the disease into six meridians: Taiyang, Yangming, Shaoyang, Taiyin, Shaoyin, and Jueyin based on the depth of disease invasion of the human body, symptom manifestations, and the movement of Qi and blood. He also formulated syndrome differentiation and treatment plans based on the lesions of different meridians.

Classification of the Six Meridians and Main Symptoms

solar meridian: The pathogenic factors are located on the surface. Symptoms include aversion to cold and fever, strong pain in the head, no sweat or abnormal sweating, nasal congestion and cough. Prescriptions mainly focus on sweating and relieving symptoms, such as Ephedra Decoction and Guizhi Decoction.
Yangming Jing: The disease pathogen enters the body and causes excessive heat. Symptoms include high fever, thirst, excessive sweating, heavy pulse, and constipation. The prescriptions mainly focus on clearing away heat, purging fire, moistening the intestines and laxative, such as Baihu Decoction.
Shaoyang Jing: The pathogenic factors are half external and half internal, and the symptoms include alternating cold and heat, bitterness and fullness in the chest and hypochondrium, bitter mouth, retching, and silent discomfort. Prescriptions mainly focus on resolving Shaoyang, soothing the liver and promoting gallbladder, such as Xiaobuihu Decoction.
Taiyin Meridian: When the pathogenic factors enter the body and the cold and dampness are excessive, the symptoms include abdominal distension, diarrhea, loss of appetite, and tired limbs. Prescriptions mainly focus on warming the spleen and strengthening the spleen, tonifying qi and diluting water, such as Lizhong Pills.
Shaoyin meridian: The pathogenic factors penetrate deeply into the yin part, and the symptoms include chills, cold hands and feet, thready or heavy pulse, mental fatigue, and palpitations. Prescriptions mainly focus on warming the kidneys and heart, strengthening the body and dispelling evils, such as Zhenwu Decoction.
Jueyin Meridian: The pathogenic factors penetrate deep into the Qi of the whole body, and the symptoms include cold limbs, tightness and pain in the chest and abdomen, vomiting, thirst and inability to drink, and mental confusion. The prescriptions mainly focus on harmonizing the liver and spleen, warming the menstruation and relieving pain, such as Sini Decoction.

Dialectical principle

Depth of disease location: From the outside to the inside, Taiyang→Yangming→Shaoyang→Taiyin→Shaoyin→Jueyin, the disease progresses layer by layer.
Deficiency and excess of cold and heat: Distinguish the properties of cold and heat and the status of deficiency and excess according to symptoms, and determine the nature, flavor and treatment method of prescriptions.
Meridian corresponding symptoms: Different meridian lesions correspond to specific symptoms and pulse conditions. For example, Taiyang disease is more likely to have a floating pulse, and Yangming disease is more likely to have a flooded pulse.
Syndrome differentiation and treatment: Choose the appropriate prescription based on the syndrome differentiation results of the six meridians, and flexibly adjust it as the condition changes.

Academic value and application

Provide a theoretical framework for systematic analysis of exogenous diseases in traditional Chinese medicine.
Guide clinical syndrome differentiation and treatment to ensure the right medicine is prescribed.
It had a profound influence on later generations of TCM classics and clinical practice, and is an important foundation for TCM exogenous diseases.

Treatise on Febrile Diseases and Pharmacy

Concept introduction

The prescription section of "Treatise on Febrile Diseases" mainly records the composition principles, indications and usage of various prescriptions. It emphasizes the selection of prescriptions based on syndrome differentiation results, emphasizing treatment according to the symptoms, and records in detail the combination, dosage, and incompatibility of prescriptions, which is an important basis for clinical use of traditional Chinese medicine.

Classification and application of prescriptions

surfactant: Used for exogenous symptoms, sweating and relieving symptoms. like:
- Mahuang Decoction: Treats Taiyang disease without sweating, aversion to cold, fever, body aches and headaches.
- Guizhi Decoction: Treats Taiyang disease with sweating, aversion to wind, and strong pain in the head and neck.
heat-clearing agent: Used for excessive heat in Yangming Meridian, fever and polydipsia. like:
- Baihu Decoction: Treats Yangming disease with high fever, sweating, polydipsia, and heavy pulse.
conciliator: Reconciling Shaoyang and Taiyin meridian diseases, such as:
- Xiaochaihu Decoction: Treats Shaoyang disease with alternating cold and heat, pain and fullness in the chest and hypochondrium, upset and vomiting.
Temperature agent: Treat internal invasion of cold evil and blood stagnation due to cold, such as:
- Lizhong Wan: Treats spleen and stomach deficiency, cold limbs, abdominal pain and diarrhea.
Tonic: Used for deficiency of qi and blood and physical weakness, such as:
- Sijunzi Decoction: Replenishes qi and strengthens the spleen, used for weak spleen and stomach.
- Bazhen Decoction: nourishes qi and blood, treats deficiency of both qi and blood.

Principle of prescription formulation

Lord, minister and envoy: The drugs in the prescription are divided into monarch drugs, ministerial drugs, adjuvant drugs and messenger drugs according to their main therapeutic effects to achieve synergistic therapeutic effects.
Differentiation and treatment of cold, heat, deficiency and excess: According to the patient's constitution and pathological condition, select warming or cooling drugs.
Taking into consideration both attack and supplement: There are medicines for attacking evil and dispersing diseases, as well as nourishing qi to harmonize yin and yang and balance qi and blood.

academic value

Lay the theoretical foundation and clinical practical model of traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions.
Provide systematic guidance on syndrome differentiation, treatment and drug compatibility.
Influenced later generations of TCM classic prescriptions and clinical practice.

clinical application

It is used for the syndrome differentiation treatment of exogenous diseases, acute febrile diseases and chronic diseases.
Guide the selection and adjustment of modern Chinese medicine clinical prescriptions.
Provide clinical data basis for ancient prescriptions for pharmacological research.

Four Diagnostics of Traditional Chinese Medicine

Concept introduction

The four diagnostic methods of traditional Chinese medicine are the basic methods of clinical diagnosis in traditional Chinese medicine, including inspection, smelling, questioning, and dissection. Through these four diagnostic methods, doctors can comprehensively understand the patient's condition, constitution, disease location and causes, providing a basis for syndrome differentiation and treatment.

Classification and content of the four diagnoses

1. Consultation

Observe the patient's complexion, tongue, posture, mental state and appearance of the lesion.
Focus: Tongue coating, tongue texture, skin color, shape, expression and secretions.
Purpose: Determine the function of the organs, the deficiency and excess of cold and heat, and the running status of qi and blood.

2. Sniffing

Understand the condition through smell and hearing.
Including: breathing sounds, coughing sounds, talking sounds, smells (bad breath, sweat smell, secretion smell).
Purpose: Determine the nature of the disease, the deficiency and excess of cold and heat, and the function of the internal organs.

3. Consultation

By asking patients about their medical history, symptoms, living habits, emotional changes, etc.
Content: onset time, cause, nature of pain, diet, defecation, sleep, emotions, etc.
Purpose: To understand the cause and pathogenesis of the disease, identify the severity of the disease and changes in the course of the disease.

4. Diagnosis

Mainly pulse diagnosis, but also includes pressing the diseased area, palpating the mass, temperature, texture, etc.
Pulse diagnosis: observe the fluctuation, slowness, deficiency and excess of the pulse to reflect the function of the organs and the state of qi and blood.
Purpose: Provide important basis for evaluation of disease depth, deficiency, excess, cold and heat, and efficacy.

Comprehensive Syndrome Differentiation of Four Diagnoses

Comprehensive analysis of the results of observation, hearing, questioning, and physical examination to form a comprehensive dialectical conclusion.
It helps to determine the location (exterior and internal), nature (cold and heat), course (acute and slow) and treatment principles of the disease.
Provide scientific basis for the selection of traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions and the formulation of treatment plans.

Pulse diagnosis

Concept introduction

Pulse diagnosis is one of the four diagnoses of traditional Chinese medicine (looking, smelling, asking, and feeling). By palpating the patient's pulse, one can understand the body's qi and blood, organ functions, and changes in the condition. Pulse diagnosis plays an important role in clinical TCM and is one of the core means of syndrome differentiation and treatment.

Basic principles

Pulse reflects organ function: Lesions in different organs will show specific characteristics in the wrist pulse.
Qi and blood running status: Pulse speed, strength, ups and downs, etc. can reflect the rise and fall of Qi and blood, as well as the deficiency and excess of cold and heat.
Judgment of disease course: Pulse condition can indicate the progression, outcome and efficacy evaluation of the disease.

Common pulse classification

Floating veins: Excessive external evils, the disease is located on the surface, as is common in the early stages of a cold.
Shenmai: The disease is located inside, and internal evil or cold evil invades internally, such as cold evil entering the inside or internal deficiency and coldness.
Late pulse: Slow pulse, more common in cold syndrome or weakness of qi and blood.
Count the pulse: Rapid pulse, common in fever or excess fever.
Hua Mai: Pulse feels fluent and smooth, more common in phlegm-dampness or pregnant women.
Astringent pulse: A knotty and blocked pulse is more common in blood stasis or insufficient blood and essence.
Deficient pulse: Weak pulse, mostly seen in deficiency of qi and blood or cold.
solid pulse: Pulse force is strong, often seen in excess heat or evil syndrome.

Pulse diagnosis method

Three Parts and Nine Hours: Divide the radial artery of the wrist into three parts: Cun, Guan and Chi. The left hand controls the heart, liver and kidneys, and the right hand controls the lungs, spleen and kidneys. Observe the pulse condition through nine positions.
Fingering and strength: Gently press the pulse with the pads of your middle finger, index finger, and ring finger to distinguish levels of ups and downs, urgency, deficiency and excess.
Cooperate with looking, hearing and asking questions: Pulse diagnosis needs to be combined with other diagnostic methods to comprehensively judge the condition to ensure accurate syndrome differentiation.

Technology Pulse Diagnosis

Modern technology pulse diagnosis (Digital Pulse Diagnosis) uses electronic sensors, pressure sensing and optical equipment to quantify the frequency, amplitude, waveform and changes of the pulse, digitizes traditional palpation, reduces subjective errors, and can be combined with artificial intelligence for pulse analysis.

scientific experimental demonstration

Multiple studies have confirmed that the characteristics of traditional pulse such as floating, sinking, slowing, and counting have a certain correlation with blood pressure, heart rate, hemodynamics, and cardiovascular function.
The pulse waveform measured using modern instruments can reproduce the classic pulse characteristics of traditional Chinese medicine and provide data support.
Combining electrocardiogram (ECG), hemodynamics and AI models can provide early warning and syndrome differentiation assistance for the disease.

clinical application

Determine the nature of the disease (deficiency and excess of cold, heat) and the depth of the disease.
Evaluate the severity, progression and treatment effect of the disease.
Assists in the selection of traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions and individualized treatment.
Modern pulse diagnosis can be used in remote health monitoring and smart medical systems.

pulse diagnosis instrument

Pulse diagnosis equipment is a medical auxiliary tool that combines traditional Chinese medicine theory with modern sensing technology. It uses highly sensitive sensors to convert the pulsation signal of the radial artery into quantifiable data, providing an objective basis for health assessment.

Core sensing technology

pressure sensing technology

Use piezoresistive or piezoelectric sensors to simulate the pressing sensation of a physician's finger. This method can most accurately capture the three pulse depths of floating, medium and sinking in traditional Chinese medicine theory, and record the pressure intensity of the pulse.
Photoplethysmography (PPG)

The light emitted by the light-emitting diode penetrates the skin, and the receiver senses changes in blood vessel volume and light absorption caused by blood flow. Commonly used in wearable devices and remote health management.
Ultrasonic Doppler

The principle of ultrasonic frequency displacement is used to monitor blood flow velocity and vessel wall motion, which is usually used for more in-depth studies of circulatory system dynamics.

Pulse diagnosis digital indicators

Modern instruments break down the pulse into the following key parameters, making it no longer just a matter of subjective experience:

Indicator items	clinical significance
Waveform amplitude	The intensity of the pulse corresponds to the deficiency and excess of pulse qi in traditional Chinese medicine.
Pulse rate and rhythm	The number and regularity of heartbeats per minute can determine whether the pulse is delayed, several pulses or knotted pulses.
Spectrum analysis	Harmonics are analyzed through Fourier transform, which corresponds to the resonance energy of different organs and meridians.
Waveform smoothness	It reflects the elasticity of blood vessels and blood viscosity, and determines whether the pulse is slippery or astringent.

Clinical advantages and limitations

standardized records

It solves the individual differences in traditional pulse diagnosis and establishes a long-term personal health database to facilitate tracking changes before and after treatment.
AI physique recognition

Combined with big data algorithms, it can automatically conclude that the subjects belong to specific physical types such as qi deficiency, yang deficiency, phlegm-dampness, etc.
environmental restrictions

The measurement results are easily affected by the current mood, room temperature, caffeine intake or measurement posture, and must be carried out in a still state. In addition, the accuracy of sensor placement will directly affect data reliability.

Common application scenarios

At present, pulse diagnosis instruments have been widely used in scientific outpatient clinics in traditional Chinese medicine hospitals, remote health tracking in long-term care institutions, and practical teaching of traditional Chinese medicine in colleges and universities to help students establish objective pulse feeling standards.

Human body meridians

The definition and composition of meridians

Meridians are the channels through which qi and blood circulate in the human body and connect the internal and external organs to the upper and lower parts of the body. They are the basis of acupuncture.

meridians(Main trunk): Twelve main meridians + Ren meridian + Du meridian (14 in total)
collaterals(Branch): Shiwubieluo, Fuluo, Sunluo
Total: Twelve Meridians + Rendu Meridian + Fifteen Different Meridians + Different Meridians + Meridians + Skin

The direction of the twelve meridians and shorthand formula for yin and yang of the hands and feet

Hand Sanyin: Move your hands from the chest (lungs → pericardium → heart)
Hand Sanyang: Start from hand to head (large intestine → triple burner → small intestine)
Zusanyang: Walk from head to foot (stomach → gallbladder → bladder)
Zusanyin: From the feet to the abdomen (spleen→liver→kidney)

Twelve Meridians + Rendu Meridian List

meridians	Yin and Yang attributes	starting point	end	Key points to follow	handover meridians
Hand Taiyin Lung Meridian	lunar	medium focus	thumb	Chest→Inner front edge of arm	→Large intestine
Hand Yangming large intestine meridian	Yangming	index finger	Yingxiang	Face, teeth, nose	→Stomach
Foot Yangming Stomach Meridian	Yangming	Weeping	Li Dui	Face, chest, middle side of abdomen, front and outer sides of legs	→Spleen
Foot Taiyin Spleen Meridian	lunar	Hidden white	Chest and abdomen	Inner front edge of lower limbs, abdomen	→Heart
Hand Shaoyin Heart Meridian	Shaoyin	chest	little finger	Underarm→Inner back edge of arm	→Small intestine
Hand Taiyang Small Intestine Meridian	sun	little finger	Ting Gong	Scapula, ears, outer canthus of eyes	→Bladder
Foot Taiyang Bladder Meridian	sun	Eyesight	to yin	Behind the head, back (two lines), behind the legs	→kidney
Foot Shaoyin Kidney Meridian	Shaoyin	spring	chest	Medial posterior edge of lower limbs, abdomen	→Pericardium
Hand Jueyin Pericardium Meridian	Jueyin	chest	middle finger	inner midline of arm	→Triple burner
Hand Shaoyang Triple Burner Meridian	Shaoyang	ring finger	Sizhukong	Around the ears, side of head, shoulders	→Courage
Foot Shaoyang Gallbladder Meridian	Shaoyang	Tongziliao	orifices	Side of head, behind ears, sides of body, outside of legs	→Liver
Foot Jueyin Liver Meridian	Jueyin	Dadun	Qimen	The innermost part of the lower limbs, vulva, abdomen	→Lungs (circulation)
Renmai	Sea of Yin Veins	perineum	Bearing grout	front center line	Governor of all vaginal meridians
Governor Vessel	Sea of Yang Veins	perineum	Gingival intercourse	Back midline, ascend to the end	Governor's All Yang Jing

Shorthand table of the eight extraordinary meridians

Du Vein: the posterior midline, the sea of Yang Veins
Ren meridian: the front midline, the sea of yin meridians
Chongmai: The abdomen is parallel to Renmai, the sea of twelve meridians
Belt: a circle around the waist, like a belt
Yinqiao pulse: medial malleolus → medial canthus of the eye (mainly sleep)
Yangzhi Vein: lateral malleolus → medial canthus (main movement)
Yinwei Meridian: inner side, maintains all yin meridians
Yangwei Meridian: outer side, maintains the Yang meridians

The order and time of the flow of the twelve meridians (Ziwu flow)

Yin Shi (03-05) Lung → Mao Shi Large Intestine → Chen Shi Stomach → Si Shi Spleen → Wu Shi Heart → Wei Shi Small Intestine → Shen Shi Bladder → You Shi Kidney → Xu Shi Pericardium → Hai Shi Triple Burner → Zi Shi Gallbladder → Chou Shi Liver → Yin Shi Returns to the Lungs

Meridian clinical focus matching

External and internal meridians: lung-large intestine, heart-small intestine, spleen-stomach, liver-gallbladder, kidney-bladder, pericardium-triple burner
Meridians with the same name: Hand Yangming ↔ Foot Yangming (large intestine-stomach), Hand Taiyang ↔ Foot Taiyang (small intestine-bladder), Hand Shaoyang ↔ Foot Shaoyang (triple burner-gallbladder)
The song of the four general acupoints: three miles of the abdomen and abdomen are left, the waist and back are in the center, the head and neck are looking for gaps, the face and mouth are closed, and the grain is gathered.

acupuncture points

Definition of acupuncture points

The special parts on the human body's meridians where Qi and blood flow and gather are the stimulation points for acupuncture, massage, and Qigong treatments. There are a total of 361 regular acupoints and 48 extra-meridian acupoints.

Acupoint classification

Fourteen meridian points: Twelve main meridians + Ren meridian + Du meridian (361 points)
Strange points outside the meridian: Not in the Fourteen Classics but commonly used clinically (such as Sishencong, Yintang)
Ashi point: Treat pain as loss, the tender point is the acupoint

Acupoint naming principles

Astronomy and geography (such as Tianshu, Chengshan)
Building parts (such as Yingxiang and Tinggong)
Anatomical features (e.g. shoulders, missing pelvis)
Functional effects (such as Zusanli, Hegu to relieve pain)

The ten most commonly used acupoints (must be memorized clinically)

Acupoint name	Meridian tropism	Location	Indications (Key Points)
Hegu(LI4)	Hand Yangming large intestine meridian	Between the 1st and 2nd metacarpal bones	The king of facial and mouth diseases, headaches, fever, and pain relief
Neiguan (PC6)	Hand Jueyin Pericardium Meridian	2 inches above the wrist crease, between the palmaris longus tendon and the flexor carpi radialis tendon	Heart palpitations, chest tightness, motion sickness, stomach pain
Zusanli (ST36)	Foot Yangming Stomach Meridian	3 inches below the calf's nose, one finger across from the front edge of the tibia	The first point to replenish qi, gastrointestinal diseases, enhance immunity
Sanyinjiao (SP6)	Foot Taiyin Spleen Meridian	3 inches above the tip of the medial malleolus, medial posterior edge of the tibia	Gynecology, insomnia, weak spleen and stomach (pregnant women are prohibited from acupuncture)
Taichong (LR3)	Foot Jueyin Liver Meridian	There is a 2-inch depression on the seam between the 1st and 2nd toes.	Soothe the liver, headache, hypertension, menstrual disease
Column missing (LU7)	Hand Taiyin Lung Meridian	1.5 inches above the radial styloid process	Strong pain in the head, cough, migraine
Shenmen (HT7)	Hand Shaoyin Heart Meridian	The ulnar end of the transverse wrist crease, the depression of the pisiform bone	Insomnia, palpitations, forgetfulness
Zhongwan (CV12)	Renmai	4 inches above the umbilicus, anterior midline	Stomach pain, vomiting, gastroptosis (stomach point)
Guan Yuan (CV4)	Renmai	3 inches below the umbilicus, anterior midline	Tonifying the kidneys and strengthening the foundation, gynecology, spermatorrhea, consumptive fatigue
Qihai (CV6)	Renmai	1.5 inches below the umbilicus, anterior midline	Replenishing qi, abdominal pain, constipation, irregular menstruation

Specific point classification (clinical high frequency)

Wushu point: Well (wood) → Ying (fire) → Lose (earth) → Meridian (gold) → Combine (water)
Original point: The place where the original energy of the twelve meridians stays (such as Taiyuan and Taichong Hegu)
collateral points: The starting point of fifteen different networks (such as Lieque, Pianli, Gongsun)
Xie point: The place where meridian qi gathers deeply, key points for emergencies (such as Kongzui, Weizhong, Diji)
Bahui point: The internal organs will be linked to Zhangmen, the fu organs will be linked to Zhongwan, the qi will be linked to Tanzhong, the blood will be linked to Geshu, the tendons will be linked to Yanglingquan, the marrow will be linked to bone, the bones will be linked to Dazhu, and the pulse will be linked to Taiyuan.
Eight meridians intersection point: Gongsun Chong Mai, Neiguan Yinwei, Houxi Du Mai, Liequeiren Mai, Waiguan Yangwei, Zulinwei Dai Mai, Shen Mai Yang Qiao, Houhui Yin Qiao

Commonly used acupoint matching principles

Proximal acupoint selection: where the pain is
Selecting acupoints from afar: the same meridian of the hands and feet, and the songs of the four general acupoints (stay in the three li of the abdomen, search for the middle of the waist and back, search for the gaps in the head and neck, close the face and mouth, and close the grain)
Points assigned to the external and internal meridians: such as the lungs and large intestine (Lieqi Tonggu)
Allocation of acupoints on upper and lower parts: remove the points for upper diseases and the upper parts for lower diseases (such as shoulder pain with knee pain)

Traditional Chinese Medicine and External Treatment

What is traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) therapy?

External therapy of traditional Chinese medicine is a treatment technology that directly acts on acupuncture points or diseased areas on the body surface without oral administration. It uses drugs, physical stimulation, temperature and other methods to achieve the purpose of adjusting qi and blood, dredging the meridians, strengthening the body and eliminating evil. It is one of the two major treatment systems of traditional Chinese medicine along with oral traditional Chinese medicine.

Top 10 common treatments outside traditional Chinese medicine

therapy	Main features	Represents efficacy
Acupuncture	Filiform needle inserted into acupuncture point	Pain relief, regulate nerves and endocrine
Moxibustion	Moxa burns warm acupuncture points	Warming yang, dispersing cold, replenishing deficiency and strengthening vitality
Cupping	Negative pressure adsorption to skin	Promotes blood circulation and removes blood stasis, expels wind and removes dampness
Gua Sha	Horn board scraped repeatedly	Relieve superficial evil and promote circulation
Massage	Manual massage of meridian muscles	Regulate tendons and relieve soreness
Apply	Apply traditional Chinese medicine to acupoints (Sanfu patch, Sanjiu patch)	Treat winter diseases in summer and enhance immunity
Acupoint application	Apply medicinal cakes or ointments to specific acupoints	Relieves cough and asthma, regulates gastrointestinal function
Medicinal bath/foot bath	Soak the whole body or feet in Chinese medicinal liquid	Promotes blood circulation, unblocks collaterals, aids sleep and calms the mind
Hot amba	Apply hot medicine pack to the affected area	Warming menstruation, relieving pain, softening and dispersing stagnation
Bloodletting	Triangular needle pricking and bloodletting	Clearing away heat and purging fire, first aid for stroke

Common combination therapies (multiplying effects)

Acupuncture + cupping: first choice for stiff neck and lumbar disc herniation
Moxibustion + cup warming: cold uterus, infertility, cold hands and feet
Massage + Gua Sha: sports injuries, shoulder and neck syndrome
Cupping + walking cupping: people with heavy back moisture and sedentary people
Hot Ampoule + Acupoint Application: Degenerative Arthritis

Key points of external treatment in four seasons

season	Recommended treatments	Purpose
spring	Gua Sha, acupuncture	Boost Yang Qi, soothe the liver and relieve depression
Dog days of summer	Sanfu patching, moxibustion	Treat winter diseases in summer
autumn	Cupping, medicinal bath	Moistens the lungs, prevents dryness, and removes summer heat dampness
winter 39	Warm cans and hot wafers	Warm and nourish kidney yang, enhance immunity

Advantages of external therapy

Avoid gastrointestinal irritation, suitable for the elderly, children and pregnant women
Strong local effect and quick onset of action
Can directly target pain points
Almost no burden on liver and kidneys
Easy to operate, most can be maintained at home

General contraindications

severe bleeding disorder
Extensive skin damage or infection
malignant tumor local
Febrile convulsions, acute infectious diseases
Use with caution on the waist and abdomen of pregnant women

External TCM therapy is the preferred technology for “preventive treatment” and pain management. More than 90% of patients in modern TCM clinics use more than one type of external therapy, which is effective and safe.

Cupping

What is cupping

Cupping is a classic external therapy method of traditional Chinese medicine. It uses negative pressure to adsorb glass jars, bamboo jars or plastic jars to the surface of the skin, producing a strong pulling effect that dilates and even ruptures local capillaries. It achieves the effects of promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis, dispelling wind and dampness, promoting qi and relieving pain, and adjusting the functions of the organs.

Main functions

Promotes blood circulation, removes blood stasis, reduces swelling and relieves pain
Expelling wind and dampness, treating rheumatic arthralgia
Promotes qi and relieves muscle soreness and stiffness
Regulate the nervous system and improve insomnia
Enhance immunity and promote metabolism
Remove moisture and toxins from the body

Common cupping methods

Way	Features	Commonly used parts
Keep the can	Adsorption does not move for 8-15 minutes	Beishu point, Ashi point
Walking can (sliding can)	After applying oil, push the can back and forth	Back bladder meridian, posterior thigh
flash jar	Pull it out repeatedly until the skin flushes	Yang deficiency, fear of cold, stiff shoulders and neck
Acupuncture and cupping	First use a plum-blossom needle or a three-edged needle for bleeding and then cupping	Intractable numbness and pain, sequelae of herpes zoster
medicine jar	Add Chinese medicine liquid into the tank	Rheumatism, skin diseases

Can Color Interpretation (General Reference)

Light pink: normal reaction, good qi and blood flow
Purple: qi stagnation and blood stasis
Deep purple and black: severe blood stasis or severe cold
Grayish white, not red: Deficiency of cold or Yang deficiency
Blisters: extremely wet
The pot mark does not go away for 7-10 days: chronic disease or severe blood stasis

Common application sites

Back: Dazhui, Feishu, Xinshu, Ganshu, Shenshu
Waist: Baliao, Mingmen, Yaoyangguan
Limbs: Quchi, Zusanli, Weizhong, Chengshan
Head: Fengchi, Baihui (small jar)

Comparison of various types of cupping

project	traditional cupping	warm pot	Vacuum gun tank
temperature	normal temperature	40-55℃	normal temperature
pot print	most obvious	slight	medium
Dispelling cold power	medium	strongest	medium
Anti-stasis power	strongest	medium	powerful
Suitable for physique	evidence, blood stasis	Deficiency and cold	All constitutions

Contraindications

Hemophilia, thrombocytopenia, purpura
Skin ulcers, severe eczema, burns and scalds
High fever, convulsions, severe heart disease
Pregnant woman’s abdomen, lumbosacral region
Extreme weight loss, fractures, and obvious varicose veins
After eating, being drunk, or being extremely tired

Things to note

Avoid taking baths and blowing cold air within 24 hours after opening the can
Severe blisters require disinfection and medical attention
People tend to sweat easily in summer, and pot marks fade quickly.
It is recommended that the interval between continuous cupping be 3-5 days

Cupping is the preferred external treatment method of traditional Chinese medicine for "preventing disease" and acute and chronic pain. It can be used at any time of the year. It is especially effective in the dog days of summer when "winter disease is treated in summer".

warm pot therapy

What is warm cup therapy

Warm cup therapy is an advanced technique that adds warm stimulation to traditional cupping. It uses a heated glass jar (about 40-55°C) to be adsorbed on the skin, while giving dual effects of negative pressure and warmth, allowing the heat to penetrate deep into the muscle fascia and meridians, achieving the remarkable effects of warming the meridians, dispelling cold and dehumidification, activating blood circulation and removing blood stasis, reducing swelling and analgesic.

Main functions

Powerfully warms the meridians and dispels cold, improving cold hands and feet
Deeply relax tight muscles and relieve shoulder, neck, waist and back pain
Promote local blood circulation and accelerate metabolism
Expelling cold and damp poisonous gas, improving rheumatic arthralgia and arthritis
Regulate gynecological problems (uterine cold, menstrual pain, irregular menstruation)
Enhance immunity, improve physical weakness and fatigue due to long-term illness
Helps sleep, reduces stress and anxiety

Common application sites

parts	Main correspondence issues
Back Shu points (Feishu, Pishu, Shenshu)	Improve visceral function and enhance immunity
Baliao points (Ciliao, Zhongliao, etc.)	Gynecological diseases, lumbosacral pain, sciatica
Abdomen (Zhongwan, Guanyuan, Qihai)	Cold in the uterus, cold in the intestines and stomach, constipation
Dazhui to Mingmen section	Yang deficiency constitution, cold sensitivity, fatigue
Around the knee joint	Cold knee pain, degenerative arthritis

Common types of warm cup therapy

alcohol thermos: Ignite the alcohol cotton inside the tank to generate heat
mugwort warm jar: Adding mugwort essential oil or mugwort has both moxibustion effect
Medication Warming Tank: Add ginger juice, safflower oil, and traditional Chinese medicine extract
Electronic thermostat: The instrument accurately controls temperature (safest)

Application process (taking alcohol warming tank as an example)

Apply carrier oil or medicated oil to the surgical site
Clamp the alcohol cotton pad to the hemostatic forceps, light it and wrap it around the tank 2-3 times to bring out the oxygen.
Quickly attach the can to the skin to create negative pressure
Available options:
- Leave in the jar: 8-15 minutes
- Walking cup: sliding along the bladder meridian or muscles
- Flash pot: pull out and put it on repeatedly until the skin flushes
Immediately after removing the can, cover it with a towel to keep warm and massage to relax

Comparison with other canning methods

project	traditional cupping	warm pot therapy	Acupuncture and cupping
temperature	normal temperature	40-55℃	normal temperature
Dispelling cold power	medium	powerful	medium
pot print	obvious	slight or none	deepest
comfort	Strong pulling sensation	Warm and comfortable	More painful
Suitable for physique	Evidence, wet weight	Cold syndrome, deficiency and cold	Blood stasis and heat syndrome

Precautions and contraindications

Disabled for skin damage, ulcers, and severe varicose veins
It is forbidden to use on the waist and abdomen of pregnant women
Use with caution if you have uncontrolled high blood pressure, heart disease, or severe diabetes.
Not suitable after a full meal, an empty stomach, or after being drunk.
Avoid taking showers and blowing air conditioners within 24 hours after removing the can

Warming cup therapy is especially suitable for people with cold constitutions, office workers who sit for long periods of time, women with cold uterus, and menopausal people with cold hands and feet. It is one of the most popular treatments outside traditional Chinese medicine in winter.

mugwort warm jar

What is mugwort warm jar

Mugwort warm pot is a health care method that combines "wormwood essence" and "warm cup therapy". Add mugwort essential oil or moxa velvet into a special glass jar for warm pot, and then use negative pressure to adsorb it on the skin. It also provides warm stimulation and the penetration of mugwort to achieve the effects of warming the meridians, dispelling cold and dehumidification, promoting blood circulation and relieving pain. It is gentler than traditional cupping, less likely to leave marks, and has the warming and tonic effects of moxibustion.

Main functions

Warm the meridians, dispel cold, and expel cold and dampness from the body
Promote blood circulation and relax tight muscles
Relieve shoulder, neck, back pain, low back pain, and menstrual pain
Improve cold hands and feet and cold uterus
Enhance immunity and regulate sub-health
Relieve stress and aid sleep

Common application sites

Back: Dazhui, Feishu, Shenshu, Baliao
Abdomen: Zhongwan, Shenque, Guanyuan, Qihai
Limbs: Zusanli, Hegu, Quchi
Jian Neck: Jianjing, Tianzong, Fengchi

Implementation process

Apply mugwort essential oil or mugwort ointment on the mouth of the jar
Ignite the alcohol pad in the tank (or use an electronic heating tank)
Quickly attach the can to acupuncture points or painful areas
Slide back and forth along the meridians or painful area (sliding pot) or leave it still for 5-15 minutes
After removing the jar, massage gently to keep warm and avoid catching cold.

Precautions and taboos

It is prohibited to use on damaged skin, ulcers and allergies.
It is contraindicated on the abdomen and lumbosacral area of pregnant women.
It is not advisable to do this immediately after being full, extremely tired or drunk.
Not suitable for patients with high fever, severe cardiovascular disease, and hemophilia
Avoid taking baths and blowing cold air within 24 hours after opening the can

Compare to other pot therapy

project	traditional cupping	mugwort warm jar	Moxibustion
temperature	none	40-50℃ warm	High temperature scalding
medicinal properties	none	There is wormwood penetration	moxa burning
Leave a seal	Obvious pot print	little or none	Possible moxibustion sores
comfort	Strong pulling sensation	Warm and comfortable	Hot feeling

Acupuncture-like treatments

In addition to TCM acupuncture, similar therapies exist in other peoples and cultures, and while the specific techniques and theoretical underpinnings vary, they typically involve the use of needles, pressure, fire, or other tools to stimulate specific parts of the body to promote health and treat disease. Here are some treatments similar to acupuncture:

1. Korean Peninsula Traditional Acupuncture (Oriental Medicine)

Overview: Korean traditional acupuncture (Saam acupuncture and eight-point acupuncture) has a common historical origin with Chinese acupuncture, but has developed its own unique theoretical system. Korean medicine is connected to the Yin Yang and Five Elements theories, but differs in some techniques, such as a greater emphasis on the veins in the meridian system.

Features: Korean acupuncture emphasizes fine needles and shallower penetration, and the acupuncture method is gentler. Korean medicine also pays special attention to the treatment method that combines acupuncture and herbal medicine.

2. Vietnamese acupuncture and scalp acupuncture therapy

Overview: Vietnamese traditional medicine (Đông y) was influenced by traditional Chinese medicine and also developed its own system of acupuncture. Vietnamese Scalp Acupuncture is a unique technique that treats different parts of the body by acupuncture in specific areas on the scalp.

Features: Vietnam’s scalp acupuncture therapy mainly targets neurological diseases, such as recovery after stroke, epilepsy, etc. Scalp acupuncture corresponds to the acupuncture area and the functional area of the brain, forming a unique treatment system.

3. Mongolian traditional medicine (acupuncture and fire therapy)

Overview: Mongolian traditional medicine (Tibetan-Mongolian Medicine) is deeply influenced by Tibetan medicine and traditional Chinese medicine, in which acupuncture plays an important role. Mongolian medicine also includes fire acupuncture and cupping therapy, which involves treatment with heated needles or cupping pots.

Features: Mongolian fire acupuncture therapy is different from traditional acupuncture. It uses heated needles to quickly penetrate acupoints. It is often used to treat rheumatism, joint pain and skin diseases. Mongolian fire therapy pays more attention to the effect of heat energy on the body.

4. Japanese acupuncture (acupuncture/はりきゅう)

Overview: Japanese acupuncture is called "acupuncture", where "needle" (Hari) refers to acupuncture therapy, and "moxibustion" (Kyu) refers to moxibustion therapy. The Japanese acupuncture system is heavily influenced by China, but places greater emphasis on fine needle techniques and gentle penetration, focusing on patient comfort and therapeutic effects.

Features: Japanese acupuncture is unique in that it uses very fine needles that penetrate superficially and in some cases not into the skin (called "skin needles"), designed to reduce pain. Moxibustion therapy is also very common in Japan and is used to enhance the effects of acupuncture.

5. Indian Ayurvedic Marma Therapy

Overview: There is a technique called Marma Therapy in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, which is similar to acupuncture. It adjusts body energy and promotes physical and mental health by applying pressure on "Marma Points" (similar to acupuncture points) on the human body.

Features: Agate points are considered important energy gathering points in the human body. These points are related to the flow of life energy (Prana). Therapists massage or stimulate these points to promote the flow of chi and improve body function. This therapy emphasizes energy balance and mental health.

6. Native American Acupuncture Therapy

Overview: Some Native American tribes, particularly the Plains Indians of North America, used a traditional technique called acupuncture, which has some similarities to acupuncture. They use sharp objects, such as animal bones or plant thorns, to pierce the skin to stimulate the body's healing process.

Features: This therapy is usually accompanied by religious rituals and focuses on spiritual healing. Acupuncture is believed to clear energy blockages in the body and promote harmony between body and spirit.

7. "Hijama" in Egypt and North Africa

Overview: In the Middle East and North Africa region, especially Egypt, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia, there is a traditional therapy called Hijama (wet jar bloodletting). This technique uses cupping and bloodletting to remove "bad blood" or toxins from the body to improve health.

Features: Unlike acupuncture, Hijama works primarily through bloodletting to achieve its effects, but it also involves the stimulation of specific acupoints. This therapy is widely used in the Islamic world and is believed to help treat problems such as headaches, fatigue and joint pain.

8. “Dry Needling” in Europe

Overview: Dry needling is a technique in modern physical therapy and sports medicine that has certain similarities to traditional acupuncture. It uses fine needles to penetrate muscle "trigger points" to relieve muscle tension, pain and spasms.

Features: Dry needling is based on modern Western medical theory and is mainly used to treat musculoskeletal problems. It does not involve the meridian or energy theory of traditional acupuncture. This therapy has been widely used in Europe and the United States, especially in the field of sports rehabilitation.

T:0000

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